Midterm 2 Flashcards
dopamine
binds to dopamine receptors (GPCR)
norepinephrine
binds to beta noradrenergic receptors (GPCR) and other types
epinephrine
adrenaline binds to epinephrine receptors
glutamate
binds glutamate receptors (AMPA & NMDA are ionotropic types from LTP and neurotransmission)
GABA
binds GABA receptors (GABAA is ionotropic type we studied)
Estradiol
(an estrogen) binds estrogen receptors (steroid hormone receptors)
testosterone
binds androgen receptors (steroid hormone receptors)
Glucocorticoids
bind glucocorticoids receptors (a GPCR)
hormones
messenger molecules released from endocrine glands
flow through the blood to target cells
three types (simple amino acid hormones, peptide and protein hormones, steroid hormones)
endocrinology
the study of the endocrine system
affects many systems in the body (growth, digestion, stress, kidney function, sexual development and reproduction, sexual motivation)
sexual development
XX = typically female
XY = typically male
srY gene produces testis-determining factor
produces high levels of androgen such as testosterone and anti-mullerian hormone
wolffian system = males
mullerian system = females
primordial gonad can develop into either testes or ovaries
primary sex characteristics
anatomical, physiological and behavioral features that differentiate males from females early in their development
secondary sex characteristics
changes to anatomy, physiology, and behavior that accompany puberty
male and female brain differences
mostly very similar
frontal lobe is slightly larger in females and parietal lobe slightly larger in males
hippocampus shows sex differences depending on the specific area
some neurons react differently to hormones like cortisol and estrogen
difference in serotonin synthesis
differences are important in research and treatments for neuropsychiatric disorders
variation between individuals may be more important than variation between sexes
mosaic brain idea
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
- sex chromosome XX
- homozygote recessive trait
- adrenal gland does not produce cortisol so it grows larger
- adrenal gland produces excess testosterone which masculinizes development
- develops with male or ambiguous primary sex characteristics
Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
- sex chromosome XY
- tissue is not responsive to androgens like testosterone
- Complete AIS: develops as a female, mullerian system does not develop well so the individual is infertile
- incomplete AIS: some ambiguity about primary sex characteristics
acute vs chronic stress
acute: short duration and over quickly
chronic: long lasting- persistent
fast stress response
few seconds
involves sympathomedullary pathway (SAM)
fight or flight response
brainstem activity to activate sympathetic nervous system and sends norepinephrine through the brain (reticular formation and locus coeruleous)
causes activation of adrenal medulla that releases epinephrine and norepinephrine that act as hormones affecting many areas of the body
slow stress response
few minutes
involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis)
hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
CRH causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary
ACTH travels through the blood to the adrenal cortex, causing the release of glucocorticoids such as cortisol
sympathetic adrenomedullary system
sympathetic nervous system > adrenal medulla > secretion of catecholamines (epinephrine & norepinephrines)
axis system
hypothalamus (CRH) > anterior pituitary (ACTH) > adrenal cortex > secretion of glucosteriods (cortisol, aldosterone)
problems of chronic stress
compromised immune system
can affect cardiovascular health
affects cognition and memory
leads to behavioral issues
Adverse Childhood Experiences
longitudinal study tracking children to adulthood
children experiencing trauma, neglect, and high stress show many health and psychological problems as adults
drug agonist vs antagonist
agonist: helps a neurotransmitter’s action
direct agonist attaches to receptors directly and mimics the neurotransmitter
indirect agonist does not attach to receptors but still increase the action of neurotransmitter. A precursor to a neurotransmitter; blocks the reuptake to keep the neurotransmitter in synapse and destroys enzymes that denature neurotransmitters
antagonist: hinders a neurotransmitter’s action. There are direct and indirect antagonists as well.
substance use disorder
many recreational drugs can be addictive, especially those that are dopamine agonists. Addictive drugs and behavior (gambling) increase dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, either directly or indirectly.
using a drug to the point that it harms personal health, productivity, social relationships, and cannot be intentionally stopped or controlled
alcohol withdrawal syndrome
- withdrawal from alcohol use disorder (AUD)
- Stage 1 (within 24 hours): hyperactivity of autonomic nervous system including sweating, vomiting, and agitation
- Stage 2 (within 48 hours): continued symptoms of stage 1 along with the possibility of seizures
- Stage 3 (three days): delirium tremens (DTs), including confusion, and auditory and visual hallucinations. can be life-threatening.
marijuana harm
habitual use can lead to loss in productivity and motivation
affects development in adolescent brain
Can enhance risk of schizophrenia
can lead to respiratory problems
habitual users can develop cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, causing repeated vomiting
downregulation vs upregulation
downregulation: removal of receptors produces a decline in response to drug agonists. This can cause physical dependence and withdrawals when stopping the drug
upregulation: adding of receptors produces a decline in a response to drug antagonists
SSRI
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
most common antidepressant
keeps serotonin in synapse
may also restructure transporters and G-proteins in the membrane
Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil
negative reinforcement theory
taking drugs to counteract withdrawal symptoms or a negative state
highly addictive drugs like nicotine and cocaine do not produce severe withdrawal symptoms
people relapse long after withdrawal symptoms are gone
some drugs like tricyclic antidepressant produce withdrawal but do not promote addiction
positive reinforcement theory
taking drugs because they produce euphoric pleasure
euphoric feelings often goes away
some addictive drugs do not produce pleasurable feelings
destruction that drug addiction produces far outweigh any pleasure from the drug
mesotelencephalic dopamine system (MTDS)
Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) (dopamine neurons) send axons to the nucleus accumbens (Nac) in the ventral striatum
activated by addictive drugs or behavior like gambling
activated by the stimuli associated with the drug
activated in anticipation of a reward or drug
activated most when there is uncertainty about the reward
CREB
increases in the nucleus accumbens with drug-taking
CREB activates genes that produce dynorphin, which reduces the pleasurable feelings of a drug and causes a person to increase dosage
CREB declines quickly when a person stops taking drugs
DeltaFosB
released with drug taking
causes sensitization of craving behavior to drugs and drug stimuli to create cravings
long-lasting even after a person stops taking drugs
increase BDNF that causes dendritic branching and spine formation - facilitates learning
influences relapse
incentive-sensitization theory of drug addiction
MTDs (= VTA to Nac pathway) becomes sensitized to drugs and to stimuli associated with the drug
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
difficulty / differences with social interaction and communication
hypersensitivity to stimuli
repetitive behavior
need / preference for routines
number diagnosed increased to 1 in 59 children
possible causes and risks:
genetics
exposure to heavy metals, pesticides, and herbicides
other disorders including down syndrome, fragile x syndrome, and PKU
no evidence that vaccines contribute
polypeptide hormone
not lipid soluble
binds to receptors on surface of target cell
amino acid derivative hormone
most not lipid soluble
bind to receptors on surface of target cell
steroid hormone
lipid soluble
often binds to receptors inside target cell
