Midterm 2 Flashcards
Why were race horses doped?
Race horses were doped by people who bet on their races in order to slow them down so that the slower horse they had bet on could win. The reason that people bet on the slow horses was that they were less popular and the less people who bet on a horse the more money the people who did bet on the horse could win if the horse won.
Why were adrenaline injections not a good option?
Adrenaline was not ideal for sports because it required injection through IV and because our bodies are designed for adrenaline to work off quickly in order to protect us from overextering and causing serious damage, the effects of adrenaline injections were not very helpful
Why was doping horses problematic for race tracks? What did they do to fix it?
Doping horses was problematic for race tracks because when races were fixed through doping they would lose money so in order to avoid this they came up with tests for doping.
What happened at the St. Louis Marathon?
In August 1904 the St Louis Marathon took place on a dirt road on a hot day where the temperature was 40 degress celsius and the humidity was at 100%. It was already difficult to run in these conditions but at the time there was a misconception that drinking water would lead to cramp and so as an alternative athletes like Thomas Hicks consumed mixtures containing stimulants like strychnine to continue the race.
How were performance enhancing drugs used in ancient history?
Performance-enhancing herbs and potions were used by athletes in Ancient Greece but there are few records of this today because athletes avoided recording their secret tactics so that their opponents wouldn’t find out. A hallucinogen containing alcoholic drink called dop was also used by Zulu warriors and was adopted by the Afrikaan people and later on English soldiers, leading to the English slang term for performance-enhancing drugs that we use today, dop.
How were amphetamines discovered?
Amphetamines were discovered in 1929 by Gordon Alles and were a long lasting artificial version of adrenaline
What were amphetamines originally marketed for? How was this discovered?
Amphetamines were originally marketed as cold medications because they were effective for decongestion. This was discovered by Alles’ tests on himself.
What was the first noted side effect of amphetamines? How was this exploited at the time?
The first known side effect of amphetamines was that they kept you awake and this was exploited by governments fighting in World War 2 for improving soldier endurance.
What did the Allies do when they heard about amphetamine use by enemy soldiers?
When the Allies found out that the Germans were using amphetamines and methamphetamines they began running tests to find something similar and tested caffeine, amphetamine and methamphetamine.
What did the Allies discover while testing to find something similar to the amphetamines that the Germans were using?
The Allies discovered that caffeine, amphetamines and methamphetamines all worked well for wakefulness but that their side effects were different. The side effects of caffeine were shaking and the side effects of amphetamines and methamphetamines causes soldiers to become aggressive and fearless.
What did the Allies do with the information they obtained during their tests?
The Allies began supplying their soldiers with amphetamines along with selling them to the general public as a pick me up
What were the impacts of the soldiers’ use of amphetamines on their integration back into society?
Because many of the soldiers were athletes in their civilian life they wondered if the amphetamines could also be used to their athletic advantage
What were some incidents that took place when athletes began taking amphetamines to enhance their performance?
There were multiple instances of athletes collapsing and dying due to a combination of overexertion along with dehydration due to a common misconception that drinking water caused cramps. Two athletes who died under these circumstances are cyclists Knud Enmark Jackson and Tom Simpson.
What are the two components of the involuntary nervous system and what do they do?
The two components of the involuntary nervous system are the sympathetic nervous system which controls fight or flight and and the parasympathetic nervous system which is responsible for maintenance
What impact do amphetamines have on the nervous system?
Amphetamines stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and activate fight or flight
When and why were performance-enhancing drugs restricted in the Olympics?
Performance-enhancing drugs were restricted in the Olympics in 1967 not because they were giving athletes an unfair advantage but rather because they were dangerous
Who were Pregl and Zoth?
Pregl and Zoth injected themselves with bull testicle extract in 1896 and concluded through tests on their middle fingers that it made them stronger?
What is Similia similibus and how was it applied by Brown-Sequard?
Similia similibus referred to treating an organ with itself and was applied by Brown-Sequard when he injected himself with macerated dog testicles out of concern of impotency
Describe the first isolation of testosterone
testosterone was first isolated form bull testicles by Coch and McGee in 1926
What was the issue with testosterone isolated from bull testicles?
The issue with testosterone isolated from bull testicles was that it took a large amount of bull testicles to isolate a minuscule amount of testosterone
40kg of bull testicles = 20mg of testosterone
What were the anabolic side effects of testosterone use?
The anabolic side effects of testosterone use included: increased muscle mass, increased strength and increased bone growth
What were the androgenic side effects of testosterone use?
The androgenic side effects of testosterone use included: increased growth of body and facial hair, enlarged vocal chords, acne, increased sex drive, clitoral enlargement, testicular shrinkage
What was the purpose of creating anabolic steroids?
The goal of creating anabolic steroids was to develop a steroid with the anabolic effects but not the androgenic effects
Who was Dr. Manfred Hoppner and what did he do?
Dr. Manfred Hoppner was the team doctor for the East German swim team, who won 11 out of 13 medals at the 1976 Olympics. It was later discovered that this was because the athletes were being forced to use steroids. This led to steroids being banned by the Olympics in 1977
What did the East Germans do when steroid use was banned by the Olympics in 1977?
The East Germans offered to establish an IOC accredited doping testing la and once they had access to the testing protocols they used that information to develop masking tactics
How is steroid testing done?
Steroid testing is done using a Gas-Chromatograph-Mass-Spectrometer (GCMS), a machine that measures the time it takes a molecule to go through a sticky tube as well as its weight and the pattern of fragmentation in order to identify it.
What is measured in steroid testing?
In steroid testing the ratio of testosterone to epitestosterone, which is typically 1:1 but can get up to 4:1, is measured
What steroid masking tactic did the East Germans use?
The East Germans used epitestosterone injections to mask testosterone
What other typical steroid-use masking tactics are there?
Other steroid masking techniques included the use of diuretics, contamination of urine samples and in extreme cases, urine switching?
Where did steroids originally come from? What other sources were discovered? (Give an example)
Steroids were originally produced by animals but it was discovered that they could be semi-synthesized from plants such as Diosgenin from Mexican yams
How can you tell the difference between animal-produced steroids and plant-sourced steroids? (I.e natural vs pharmaceutical source)
Plants and animals both contain 12C and 13C (carbons with atomic masses of 12 and 13 respectively) and have different amounts of 13C (carbon atoms with a mass of 13) and so the ratio of 12C to 13C can be used to determine whether the steroids are plant sourced, ie. pharmaceutical
Do steroids make your muscles bulk up?
Steroids do not automatically make muscles bulk up without exercise bur rather they speed up the repair process of muscle fibres that naturally get damaged as we exercise
Faster repair= Faster recovery time = More time to exercise = increased muscle mass/strength
What are the health risks of steroid use?
The health risks of steroid use include liver damage, heart damage, and reproductive effects
Why are the long term health risks of steroid use unknown?
The long-term health risks of steroid use are unknown because they are difficult to measure, as athletes vary doses, mix steroids, and tend to keep their methods a secret
Why can the desire for athletes to win become dangerous?
The desire for athletes to win can become dangerous because it leads to athletes pushing their limits and resorting to unethical methods like the use of dangerous performance-enhancing drugs
What is the purpose of red blood cells in the blood and how does this relate to athletics?
Red blood cells are oxygen-carrying non-living cells that the body replaces by 3 million every second an increasing the number of red blood cells in the body increases oxygen capacity which is something that athletes can benefit from.
How do athletes increase their red blood cell count?
Athletes increase their red blood cell count by either training in high altitudes, where there is less oxygen and so the body produces more RBCs to compensate, or they can engage in blood doping or the use of EPOs
How does blood doping work?
Blood doping is a four-step process used by athletes to increase their oxygen capacity consisting of:
Step 1: Blood is removed from the athlete
- Step 2: RBCs from the removed blood are concentrated and stored
- Step 3: We wait and the athlete’s body replaces the missing RBCs
- Step 4: Just before the competition the stored RBCs are put back into the
athletes body
What were the Ramada Inn transfusions?
When athletes did not have enough time to remove the blood and wait until the RBCs were replenished team doctors would taken blood from close relatives of the athletes and inject that instead.
What happens to red blood cells outside the body?
They become gradually more and more misshapen, and so the quality of the cells gradually decrease.
When was blood doping banned and outlawed?
Blood doping was banned by the Olympics in 1985, with 3 individuals involved in the Olympics being sanctioned, and outlawed shortly after when it wad discovered that AIDS among other diseases could be transferred by blood.
What is the role of Erythropoietin in red blood cell production and how did EPO injections come to be used?
Erythropoietin is a protein that regulates RBC production and EPO injections came to be used because injecting EPO allowed athletes to stimulate RBC production without having to inject the blood itself.
What were the issues with drug proteins sourced from chemical synthesis, animals, and cadavers?
Chemical synthesis was impractical because it was expensive and produced a lot of waste but minimal product. Animals were not a good source for drug proteins due to limited supply and risk of rejection as they are not human proteins. The issue with cadaver sourced proteins is that there is a limited supply, the drugs are very expensive and there is a small risk of contamination.
What was the drug protein solution that was come up with and what were the benefits?
The solution was to use recombinant bacteria, by injecting human genes into the bacteria that would instruct it to produce the necessary proteins. The benefits of this were that single celled organisms were easy to use to produce large quantities and that any contaminants were easy to filter out but still safe to be injected
What was the issue with Recombinant EPO?
While recombinant EPO is one of the greatest drug developments of the last 30 years the issue is that it was abused right from its conception with 18 cyclists dying during the clinical trial phase between 1987 and 1989.
What were the health risks of recombinant EPO use?
EPO overdose would thicken the blood leading to the formation of heart attack causing clots in the blood.
How does EPO detection work today?
EPO is detected today using blood and urine tests in two forms:
ON model → detects recent use
- Hemoglobin + EPO = Soluble transferrin receptor
- OFF model → detects longer term use (2-3 weeks)
- Hemoglobin + Reticulocytes + EPO
What is Bubble Boy Syndrome
Bubble Boy Syndrome is another name for Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID), a disease where one is unable to produce an immune system, and was named after a boy who suffered from it and lived in a plastic bubble for all 12 years of his life before dying after an unsuccessful bone marrow transplant
How did life expectancy change from the 1900s to the 2000s?
Life expectancy increased from 44 years in 1900 to 82 years in 2004
What were the leading causes of death until the 1950s vs now?
Until the 1950s the main causes of death where pneumonia, tuberculosis and influenza whereas now the main causes of death are heart disease, cancer and stroke
How much impact did infections have on World War 2?
During the second World War more people died due to infection than combat
Who was Agostino Bassi and what was the germ theory of disease?
Agostino Bassi proved in 1844 that the germ theory of disease which stated that diseases were caused by specific microscopic organisms (germs) was true
Who was John Snow and what was the miasma theory?
John snow disproved in 1854 the miasma theory which stated that diseases were caused by bad smells and unclean conditions using a map to track the origin of a cholera outbreak
Who was Louis Pasteur and what did he invent?
Louis Pasteur was a chemist who in 1854 invented pasteurization, the process by which food are heated in order to kill bacteria.
Who was Joseph Lister and what did he invent?
Joseph Lister was a British surgeon who in 1867 developed antiseptic, a chemical mixture used to kill infection causing bacteria.
Who was Joseph Graham and what did he invent?
Graham tested bacteria and categorized them into either Gram+ or Gram- based on the colors they would absorb
Who was Paul Erlich and what was the magic bullet theory?
Paul Erlich was a German biochemist who came up with the concept of magic bullet, the idea that harmful bacteria could be killed without harming other cells.
How did the Tryptan red that Erlich invented work?
Tryptan red worked by selectively coloring trypanosomes because of chemical differences in the cell that allowed it to take up color. Erlich then replaced the nitrogen in the dye with toxic and selective arsenic.
What is Salvarsan 606? What were the issues with the drug?
Salvarsan 606 was the first antibiotic effective for treating syphilis which used to be a fatal condition that killed 140 thousand people per year. The issues with Salvarsan 606 were that it was not very drug like with treatment requiring many time consuming injections of large quantities over several months
What is prontosil? What were the issues with the drug?
Prontosil was discovered by Gerhard Domagk at IG Farben in 1932 while experimenting on the antibacterial properties of dye when his daughter had a throat infection and was given some dye and recovered. Prontosil only worked in vivo because it would be converted in its active form inside the body. Prontosil also dyed the patient bright red
What was sulfanilamide and how did it work?
Sulfanilamide was the first commercially successful antibiotic discovered by Domagk and worked by inhibiting bacterial growth by stoping the enzyme that makes coenzyme F from working by mimicking the enzyme’s natural substrate and blocking the spot, allowing the immune system to catch up and kill the bacteria
Who was Alexander Flemming and what did he discover?
Flemming was a scientist who discovered that an unattended bacteria filled petri dish in his lab had grown mold and that the mold was preventing the bacteria from growing.
Who were Howard Florey and Ernest Chain and what did they discover?
Because Flemming wasn’t interested in the medicinal applications of his discovery for treating disease he did not further pursue research but his findings ere discovered by Florey and Chain who isolated penicillin in 1941.
What chain of events took place after the isolation of penicillin?
After Florey and Chain isolated penicillin they made a deal with the American government and moved their lab to the united states, due to fear of Britain’s unstable climate and an attack on their lab. The American government then invested heavily in the development and production of penicillin and it was eventually discovered that penicillin could be grown in large tanks if the tanks were injected with oxygen, which was far more efficient than the milk on a dish growth method that was being used prior. Penicillin was stockpiled and eventually produced in such large quantities that it was distributed to the general public.
What is the difference between human cells and bacterial cells?
The difference between human cells and bacterial cells is that bacterial cells have an additional cell wall that allows the cell to resist internal pressure and remain small, which is why bacterial cells are smaller than human cells.
How does penicillin work? Why do antibiotics only work on bacterial cells?
Penicillin works by targeting the enzymes that regulate cell wall synthesis therefore preventing it from taking place so that the cell has no cell wall to hold internal pressure and explodes and dies. Antibiotics only work on bacterial cells because human cells do no have a cell wall.
What is the main side effect of penicillin?
The main side effect of penicillin is allergy, caused by the presence of an enzyme or protein in the body that reacts with penicillin leading to it being recognized as a foreign substance by the body and triggering an immune reaction
