midterm 2

Question 1

similar in concept to place cells but have multiple place fields that are systematically distributed (and therefore follow a sort of spatial regularity)

Answer 1

Grid cells:

Question 2

grid cells: similar in concept to place cells but have multiple _ _ that are systematically distributed (and therefore follow a sort of _ _ )

Answer 2

place fields; spatial regularity

Question 3

grid cells

Answer 3

similar in concept to place cells but have multiple place fields that are systematically distributed (and therefore follow a sort of spatial regularity)

Question 4

neurons that fire when in particular locations (their ‘place field’)

Answer 4

Place cells:

Question 5

Place cells:

Answer 5

neurons that fire when in particular locations (their ‘place field’)

Question 6

grid cells In theory, provides a way to code _

Answer 6

direction

Question 7

neurological contributions from the parahippocampal gyrus indicates

Answer 7

(landmarks)

Question 8

Head direction cells:

Answer 8

fire depending on direction animal is facing (recall Gibson’s complaint about pilots not being able to turn their heads in lab-based experiments!)

Question 9

fire depending on direction animal if facing (recall Gibson’s complaint about pilots not being able to turn their heads in lab-based experiments!)

Answer 9

Head direction cells:

Question 10

Border cells:

Answer 10

fire when an animal is near the edge of an environment

Question 11

fire when an animal is near the edge of an environment

Answer 11

Border cells:

Question 12

Maguire et al. (2006) studied the role of experience and neural plasticity in wayfinding
Compared to London bus drivers (who have more/less variability in their routes, and thus less demand on their _ navigation skills), London taxi drivers:
Performed better on a _ test of pictures of places in London
Had more anterior/posterior (and less anterior/posterior) hippocampal volume

Answer 12

less, spatial
recognition, posterior, anterior

Question 13

reaching - Dorsal and ventral pathways
Identifying the object (dorsal/ventral)
Positioning hand and fingers to grasp (dorsal/ventral)

_ _region: Contains neurons that become active while reaching/grasping

Answer 13

ventral, dorsal
Parietal reach

Question 14

grasping
Monkey is briefly shown object with lights on, then lights turn off and a cue prompts the money to reach for object (Fattori et al., 2010)
Requires money to not only remember _ of object but also it’s _ (to accommodate a hand grip)

Specific neurons found that respond to trials requiring specific _

Answer 14

location, form
grips

Question 15

_ _ cells become active when simply _ at objects

Answer 15

Visuomotor grip, looking

Question 16

proprioception

Answer 16

the ability to sense body position and movement

Question 17

_ receptors in the elbow joint, muscle spindle, and tendon help guide reaching/grasping behaviour

Answer 17

proprioception

Question 18

Proprioception receptors in the _, _, _ help guide reaching/grasping behaviour

Answer 18

elbow joint, muscle spindle, and tendon

Question 19

Signals related to eye movements (aka _ _ _) get sent to regions involved with _ actions to help with motor planning

Answer 19

corollary discharge signals, motor

Question 20

there is a close connection between eye movements and actions: we tend to make eye movements to objects we are

Answer 20

about to interact with

Question 21

Using _ to create a ‘temporary lesion’ (i.e. increase/reduce neuronal excitability) in the _ disrupts discharge signals, disrupting reach trajectory

Answer 21

TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)
reduce
cerebellum

Question 22

We also need to adjust the amount of _ we are applying while lifting objects to take into account differences in weight

Answer 22

force

Question 23

Size-weight illusion: Erroneously predicting weight when observing two differently sized objects that have the same weight. The error occurs when

Answer 23

the perceiver predicts that larger object will be heavier, and therefore uses more force to lift it, causing it to be lifted higher and to feel lighter.

Question 24

The amount of _ one is applying while gripping an object doesn’t change/changes as needed based on various inputs (e.g. while hitting the bottom of a ketchup bottle to coax some of it out)

Answer 24

force, changes,

Question 25

If hitting the bottom of a bottle we are holding ourselves, the force applied to our grip is _ and temporary decreased/increased for exactly the point of impact

If someone else hits the bottle (that we are holding), there is a _ in the increase in force applied because we are adjusting our grip ‘after the fact’ (after the impact) –> t/f: not proactively

Answer 25

proactively, increased
lag, t

Question 26

Mirror neurons in the _ of monkeys respond when a monkey _ an object, as well as when an _ grasps an object

Answer 26

cortex, grasps, experimenter

Question 27

_ _ in the cortex of monkeys respond when a monkey grasps an object, as well as when an experimenter grasps an object

Answer 27

Mirror neurons

Question 28

Response to the observed action ‘ _ ’ the response of what happens when the monkey grasps something themselves

t/f: Diminished/little response if object grasped less directly, e.g. by pliers

Answer 28

mirrors, t

Question 29

Mirror neurons associated with various motor functions have been found distributed throughout the human _:

Answer 29

cortex

Question 30

mirror neurons in human cortex for: MRTU

Answer 30

Movements directed toward objects (turquoise)
Reaching movements (purple)
Tool use (orange)
Movements not directed toward objects (green)
Upper limb movements (blue)

Question 31

Possible functions of mirror neurons?
To help understand another animal’s _ and react to them appropriately
To help _ the observed action (i.e. learning)
_ applications (e.g. empathy)

Answer 31

actions, imitate, Social

Question 32

_ mirror neurons: responds to stimuli associated with both seeing and hearing action
May help link _ perceptions and _ actions

Answer 32

Audiovisual
sensory, motor

Question 33

Audiovisual mirror neurons:

Answer 33

responds to stimuli associated with both seeing and hearing action

Question 34

_ - _ accounts of _ : the purpose of perception is to create a representation in the mind of how one can interact with their environment

Answer 34

action-based accounts of perception,

Question 35

action-based accounts of perception, the purpose of perception is to create a

Answer 35

representation in the mind of how one can interact with their environment

Question 36

_ _ _ hypothesis states that one’s environment is perceived in terms of how they are able to act on it

Answer 36

action-specific perception

Question 37

action-specific perception hypothesis states that

Answer 37

one’s environment is perceived in terms of how they are able to act on it

Question 38

e.g of action-specific perception hypothesis: Witt and Proffitt (2005): batters with higher batting averages reported

Answer 38

perceiving the ball as larger

Question 39

eg of Action-Specific Perception Hypothesis
Estimates of distance increase/decreased as more weight is being carried (backpack vs. no backpack conditions) (Proffitt et al., 2003)

People with chronic back and/or leg pain over/underestimate distances of objects in their environment (Witt et al., 2009)

Tennis players who have recently won estimate the net to be lower/higher (Witt & Surgovic, 2010)

Football players who have had more recent success at kicking field goals estimate the goal posts to be farther/closer apart (Witt & Dorsch, 2009)

Answer 39

increase
over
lower
farther

Question 40

Motion assists with _ recognition (e.g. separating figure from ground, Gestalt common fate principle, etc.)

Answer 40

object

Question 41

Predators use _ of prey as a primary means of location in hunting (motion attracts _; attentional capture)

Answer 41

movement, attention

Question 42

Motion also draws our attention to other members of a _ (could represent possible _, _, _ etc.)

Answer 42

species
competition, cooperators, mates

Question 43

Viewing things from different perspectives (i.e. _ _ motion) provides additional information
t/f: can change interpretations of what we think we’re seeing

Answer 43

self-produced motion
t

Question 44

We expect motion to be produced by other living/dead things, predisposing us to perceive things that move as being _ (i.e. Heider & Simmel, 1944)

Answer 44

living, alive

Question 45

Motion is also a cue that we rely on for distinguishing between _ _
e.g. changes in _ /acceleration of actor’s hands was a good predictor of subjective judgments about events (Zacks et al. 2009)

The value of motion perception becomes particularly apparent with _ (an inability to perceive motion)

Answer 45

event boundaries
speed
akinetopsia

Question 46

_ _ occurs when an object is physically moving
_ _ (AKA apparent movement, phi phenomenon): stationary stimuli are presented in slightly different locations

Answer 46

Real motion
Illusory motion

Question 47

Real motion occurs when an
Illusory motion (AKA apparent movement, phi phenomenon):

Answer 47

object is physically moving
stationary stimuli are presented in slightly different locations

Question 48

Basis of movement in movies and TV

Answer 48

illusory motion

Question 49

: movement of one object (usually a larger object, e.g. clouds) results in the perception of movement in another object (usually a smaller object, e.g. the moon)

Answer 49

Induced motion

Question 50

Induced motion:

Answer 50

movement of one object (usually a larger object, e.g. clouds) results in the perception of movement in another object (usually a smaller object, e.g. the moon)

Question 51

_ _: Observer looks at movement of object for 30 to 60 seconds, then a stationary object, and movement appears to occur in opposite direction from original movement

Relates to fatiguing ( _ ) neurons tuned to motion in one direction, which become more/less sensitive compared to neurons tuned to motion in other directions (a relative difference that your system interprets as motion)

Answer 51

Motion aftereffect
adapting, less

Question 52

The perception of real and apparent motion were traditionally treated as involving rather similar/different neural mechanisms

Answer 52

different

Question 53

Larsen et al. (2006) scanned participants using fMRI while viewing one of three displays:
Control condition: two squares in slightly different positions are briefly presented simultaneously
Real motion condition: a small square is moved back and forth
Apparent motion condition: two squares are quickly alternated on alternate sides of the display so as to create illusory motion

control condition, each dot activated a _ area of visual cortex
In the apparent and real motion conditions, activation of visual cortex was _ for both sets of stimuli
Suggests the perception of motion in both cases (apparent and real) involve _ neural mechanisms

Answer 53

separate
similar
similar

Question 54

sit: look straight as object moves past
obj: move
eyes: stationery
image on retina: move
obj movement perceived????

Answer 54

YES

Question 55

sit: follow moving obj w/ eyes
obj: move
eyes: move
image on retina: stationery
obj movement perceived????

Answer 55

yes

Question 56

sit: look around room
obj: stationery
eyes: move
image on retina: move
obj movement perceived????

Answer 56

no

Question 57

Recall the ecological approach (Gibson) focusses on what/how information directly available in the _ is useful to guide _ / _

Answer 57

environment
perception/action

Question 58

The term optic array refers to the _ created by surfaces, textures, and contours in the environment, which _ as the observer moves through space
Gibson thought the optic array can be used to explain when motion is and isn’t perceived, with reference to two basic kinds of changes:

Answer 58

structure, change
Local disturbances in the optic array
Global optic flow

Question 59

_ _ in the optic array: Objects moving relative to background (e.g. such that portions of stimuli are periodically covered and uncovered, e.g. the background and objects)

_ optic flow: Overall movement of the entire optic array (as a complete whole, i.e. without any local disturbances)

Answer 59

Local disturbances
Global

Question 60

Local disturbances in the optic array: Objects moving _ to background

Global optic flow: _ movement of the entire optic array

Answer 60

relative
Overall

Question 61

Prediction: if some aspects of the optic array change, and those changes are not _ (e.g. some objects are covered/uncovered, other are not), then motion will/will not be perceived
can be explained via _ _

Answer 61

uniform, will
Local disturbance

Question 62

eg of local disturbance affecting optical array
(2)

Answer 62

• eyes stay stationery while something movies
• eyes move along with something that moves

Question 63

if the optic array changes in a uniform way (e.g. the entirety of the optic array all moves in exactly the same way), then motion will/will not not be perceived
can be explained via _ _ _

Answer 63

will not
Global optic flow

Question 64

Gibson’s take essentially comes down to:
Perceiving motion when one/entire part of the visual scene moves relative to the rest of the scene
Not perceiving motion when part of/the entire field moves, or remains stationary

Answer 64

one
the entire

Question 65

Reichardt detectors only work for movement across the _

Answer 65

retina

Question 66

_ detectors only work for movement across the retina

Answer 66

Reichardt

Question 67

Corollary discharge theory hypothesizes that movement perception depends on three signals:

Answer 67

Image displacement signal (IDS)
Motor signal (MS)
Corollary discharge signal (CDS)

Question 68

Image displacement signal (IDS): movement of _ stimulating receptors across the _

Answer 68

image, retina

Question 69

Motor signal (MS): signal sent to _ to move _ muscles

Answer 69

eyes, eye

Question 70

Corollary discharge signal (CDS): derived from the _ signal (essentially a ‘carbon copy’ of whatever the motor signal is doing, though it gets sent to a same/different part of the brain for another purpose)

Answer 70

motor, different

Question 71

Movement is perceived when comparator receives input from either (but not both):

Answer 71

Corollary discharge signal OR
Image displacement signal

Question 72

Movement is not perceived when comparator receives input, at the same time, from both:

Answer 72

Corollary discharge signal AND
Image displacement signals

Question 73

scanning static scenes doesn’t result in perceived motion because

Answer 73

both signals are received (and effectively ‘cancel each other out’)

Question 74

Starring at a large red dot can create an afterimage, which then appears to move as you shift your gaze (due to the presence of _ but no _)

Similarly, gently pressing on your eyeball (without shifting your point of focus) can create perceived motion because of a _ that occurs without an _

Answer 74

CDS, ids
CDS, ids

Question 75

Damage to the _ _ temporal area in humans leads to perception of movement of stationary environment with movement of eyes

Answer 75

medial superior temporal area (MST)

Question 76

Damage to the medial superior temporal area in humans leads to perception of movement of _ environment with movement of eyes

Answer 76

stationary

Question 77

Real-movement neurons found in monkeys in _ cortex:
Respond when a _ moves
Do not respond when _ move

Answer 77

extra striate, stimulus, eyes

Question 78

A Reichardt detectors is a model of a simple neural circuit that could fire in response to _ in one direction

Answer 78

movement

Question 79

Reichardt detectors:
Neuron A and neuron B each send signals to the _ unit, which ‘compares’ the signals it receives from those two neurons to determine whether they are _

The signal that is sent from neuron A to the output unit goes through the _ unit, which slows down/speeds up the speed of transmission of the signal (to the _ unit)

If the timing is just right, the output units receives a signal from both neuron A and B at _ _, and motion is perceived

Answer 79

output, synchronized
delay, slows down, output, exactly the same time

Question 80

What is the output unit ‘comparing’? It multiplies the signal it receives from neurons A and B at any one discreet point in time to ‘decide’ whether or not to fire
If those signals reach the output unit together = motion IS/IS NOT detected

Because a number > 0, when multiplied by another number that is also > 0, results in a value > 0 (and the neuron fires if the value it calculates is > or < 0)
If those signals do not reach the output unit at the same time, then motion/no motion is detected

Because 0, when multiplied by any number > 0, still results in a value = 0 (and the neuron does not fire if the value it calculates = 0)

Answer 80

is
>
no motion

Question 81

If the timing is just right, and the _ unit ‘holds onto’ the signal from neuron A until the signal from neuron B naturally arrives at the output unit, that output unit will fire and (rightward) motion will be perceived

Answer 81

delay

Question 82

Reichardt detectors are _, meaning that each one can only detect motion in one direction

t/f: need one configuration to register leftward motion, and a slightly different one to register rightward motion)

Answer 82

directional
t

Question 83

Perception of motion begins in _ _ (V1), the region of the _ lobe where information from the _ first reach the cortex
_ _ cells (in V1) respond to movement of the _ of objects
_ _ area (MT) implicated in other aspects of motion perception

Answer 83

striate cortex, occipital, retinas
Complex cortical, ends
Middle temporal

Question 84

Firing and coherence experiment by Newsome et al. (1995):
Coherence of movement of dot patterns varied
Monkeys taught to judge direction of dot movement
_ neurons recorded using electrodes
Results showed that as coherence of dot movement increased, firing of the MT neurons increased/decreased and the judgment of movement _

Answer 84

MT
increased, accuracy

Question 85

Lesioning experiment by Newsome and Paré (1988):
Normal monkeys can detect motion with coherence of _ or _%
Monkeys with lesions in _ _ cannot detect motion until the coherence is _ to 20%

Answer 85

1 or 2%
MT cortex, 10 to 20%

Question 86

TMS applied to _ in humans disrupts ability to perceive direction in a random pattern of moving dots

Answer 86

MT

Question 87

Microstimulation experiment Britten et al. (1992):
Monkey trained to indicate direction of fields of moving dots
Neurons in _ cortex that respond to specific direction were activated using microstimulation, which shifted their judgment to the _ stimulated direction

Answer 87

MT
artificially

Question 88

what relationship is this: flashing 2 dots with right timing can result in apparent motiion

Answer 88

stimulus affects perception

Question 89

what relationship is this: moving bar activates cortical neurons

Answer 89

stim affects physl

Question 90

what relationship is this: newsome - firing of MT cortex neuron and perception of movings dots are related

Answer 90

physl affects perc

Question 91

_ _ constraint: apparent movement tends to occur along the shortest path between two stimuli

Answer 91

Shortest path

Question 92

Shiffrar and Freyd (1990): Participants saw two images alternating rapidly or slowly:
Rapid alternations tend to result in perceiving arm _ _ head (impossible movement), slower alterations resulted in perceiving arm going _ head (possible)
Suggested the visual system sometimes needs more/less time to make sense of what it’s seeing and that the _ of the stimulus may influence how _ is perceived

Answer 92

going through head; around
more, meaning, motion

Question 93

Stevens et al. (2000) showed with fMRI that _ cortex is activated for perception of _ movement only

Answer 93

motor, possible

Question 94

Biological motion: self-produced motion of a _ or _
Can help with _ organization

Answer 94

person or other living organism
perceptual

Question 95

Point-light walker stimulus: created by placing lights on the _ of a living organism, which convey their pattern of movement (and thus, conveys _ motion)
Think of ‘_ _ technology used in films and gaming

Answer 95

joints, biological
motion capture’

Question 96

Grossman and Blake (2001): participants determined whether motion was biological or scrambled while being scanned (fMRI)
Used point-light walker stimuli with noise added to dots to reduce performance to _% accuracy
_ _ _(STS) more active for biological motion
Other studies show activation in response to biological motion in _ and _ that contain _ neurons

Answer 96

71
Superior temporal sulcus
FFA, PFC, mirror

Question 97

Grossman et al. (2005) found TMS applied to _ decreased the participants’ ability to detect biological motion

Answer 97

superior temporal sulcus (STS)

Question 98

Grossman et al. (2005) found TMS applied to STS increased/decreased the participants’ ability to detect biological motion

Answer 98

decreased

Question 99

Implied motion is conveyed by still pictures that depict an action which involves motion
_ momentum: implied motion depicted in a photo can be ‘carried out’, or continue, in the observer’s mind

Answer 99

Representational

Question 100

Freyd (1983) showed pictures during the learning phase then, during testing, asked participants to identify which pictures they had already seen
In addition to showing completely new pictures, manipulated whether the ‘familiar’ (previously seen) pictures were…
Exactly the same (control), image that happened slightly later than one seen (time _), happened slightly earlier (time- _ condition)

Answer 100

forward, backward

Question 101

Freyd time forward/backward:
Participants were found to take longer to respond to time- _
This was interpreted to mean they resulted in more _ , because the downward motion would have been anticipated (and in some sense, represented in memory) based on the initial picture implying motion
Thus, although they didn’t actually see the time-forward picture, _

Answer 101

forward pictures (as compared to time-backward); interference

they may have imagined it, which can cause interference when trying to determine whether it had actually been viewed before (and thus account for the increased RT)

Question 102

Kourtzi and Kanwisher (2000)
fMRI response was measured in _ and _ in four conditions:
Implied motion, No-implied motion, At rest, Houses
Areas of brain responsible for motion fire in response to pictures of _ motion

Answer 102

middle temporal area (MT) , medial superior temporal area (MST)
implied

Question 103

Winawer et al. (2008):
Showed participants a series of photos with implied motion to one side (either the right or left) for 60 seconds, then asked them to identify the direction of movement in an array of moving dots
Before being ‘adapted’ to the pictures implying motion, participants were _ likely to perceive dots with zero coherence as moving to the right or left

After being ‘adapted’ to photos with implied motion to one side, participants were now more likely to indicate an array of dots with zero coherence was moving in the direction _ to which they had been adapted
e.g. adapt to pictures with leftward motion, report seeing dots moving to the _

Answer 103

equally, opposite, right

Question 104

Perception of biological motion may not depend on visual experience - Vallortigara et al. (2005); (Simion et al., 2008) newly hatched chicks and infants prefer representations of _ motion

Answer 104

biological

Question 105

Colour helps us _ and _ objects
Facilitates perceptual organization of elements into _
May provide an _ advantage (e.g. for foraging)

Answer 105

classify, identify
objects
evolutionary

Question 106

Tanaka and Presnell (1999): participants identified foods presented in _ colours more rapidly

Answer 106

natural

Question 107

Newton was interested in colour and light, experimented using two prisms, concluded:
White light is a mixture of _ _
Other colours on the spectrum are/are not mixtures but rather represent ‘ _’ colours (cannot be broken down any further)

the degree to which beams from each part of the spectrum were ‘bent’ by the second prism differed was indicative of a difference in some _ property

Answer 107

all colours
are not, pure
physical

Question 108

Chromatic colours (e.g. _, _, _) are perceived when certain wavelengths are reflected by objects more/less than others (i.e. _ reflection)
e.g. red paper reflecting _ wavelengths (and absorbing _ / _)

Answer 108

blue, green, red
more, selective
long, short/medium

Question 109

Achromatic colours (_, _, _) are perceived when light is reflected unequally/equally across the spectrum

e.g. white paper reflecting _ wavelengths equally

Answer 109

gray, black, white
equally; all

Question 110

t/f: Objects typically reflect more than just a single wavelength
Reflectance curves plot percentage of light transmitted at _ _

Answer 110

t
each wavelength

Question 111

The colour of objects that are transparent are created by _ transmission
occurs when only certain wavelengths pass through objects (e.g. cranberry juice selectively transmitting _ wavelengths results in a reddish appearance)
Can be plotted with _ _

Answer 111

selective
long
transmission curves

Question 112

Subtractive colour mixing occurs when mixing together _ that have different pigments
Adding more pigments to a mixture results in more/fewer wavelengths being reflected (and more being _)

Answer 112

paints
fewer
absorbed

Question 113

_ colour mixing occurs when mixing together paints that have different pigments

Answer 113

subtractive

Question 114

e.g. why does a mixture of blue and yellow appear green?
Blue reflects mostly _ -wavelength (and some_), absorbs others
Yellow reflects mostly _ -wavelength (and some _), absorbs others
After being combined, both pigments in the paint mixture continue to reflect the same wavelengths they did on their own

the only wavelengths that are reflected from a mixture of blue and yellow are _ wavelengths (i.e. _!)

Answer 114

short-wavelength (and some medium),
long-wavelength (and some medium),
medium, green

Question 115

Additive colour mixing occurs when mixing _ of different wavelengths
All of the light that is reflected from the surface by each light when alone is also reflected when the lights are _

Answer 115

lights
superimposed

Question 116

_ colour mixing occurs when mixing lights of different wavelengths

Answer 116

additive

Question 117

Pure blue light projected onto a white board looks blue because Similarly, pure yellow light projected onto that same white board looks yellow because
Superimposing blue and yellow lights onto that white board leads to the perception of white, because _, _, _ wavelengths are all reflected back to our eyes

Answer 117

wavelengths responsible for that colour perception (i.e. short wavelengths) are all reflected back to our eyes

the wavelengths responsible for that colour perception (i.e. short and medium wavelengths) are all reflected back to our eyes

short, medium, and long

Question 118

Spectral colours are those that appear on the _
Many nonspectral colours exist, which can only be created by _ (e.g. magenta, which is a mixture of _ + _ )

_ is another term for a chromatic colour (blue, red, etc.), or what we might refer to as a ‘pure’ colour

Answer 118

spectrum
mixing spectral colours in various combinations; blue and red
Hue

Question 119

Value refers to the _ - _ dimension
Saturation is determined by the amount of _ in a hue

More white = _
More dark = value increasing/decreasing

Answer 119

light-to-dark
white
desaturation, decreasing

Question 120

HSV (hue/saturation/value) colour solids can be used to determine _ colour combinations

Answer 120

additive

Question 121

The Trichromatic Theory was initially proposed by Young, and then was supported with experimental evidence by Maxwell and Helmholtz
States that all human colour vision is based on three principle colours: _, _, _

Answer 121

(red, green and blue)

Question 122

3chromatic behavioural evidence:
_ - _ experiments provide one line of behavioural evidence, in which observers are shown a reference colour they must match by _

Answer 122

Colour-matching
mixing different amounts of various wavelengths of light in a ‘comparison field’ (see next slide)

Question 123

Trichromatic theory:
t/f: > 3 were never needed and 2 was only sufficient to match some colours
Observers with colour deficiencies could match their perception of any colour with _ wavelengths
This was interpreted as meaning that ‘normal’ colour vision depends on _ receptor mechanisms (i.e. _ types of cones)

Answer 123

t
2
three, 3

Question 124

Physiological evidence for the Trichromatic theory came from measuring the absorption spectra of visual pigments in receptors (1960s)
Pigments were found that respond maximally to:
Short wavelengths (_ nm)
Medium wavelengths ( nm)
Long wavelengths ( nm)
Later researchers found _ differences for coding proteins for the three pigments

Answer 124

419nm, 531, 558
genetic

Question 125

Color perception is based on the combined responses of the three different types of _, which vary depending on the wavelengths available

Answer 125

cones,

Question 126

cone size of short, med, long cone:
blue
green
red
yellow
white

Answer 126

big, m, s
m, b, m
s,m b
s, mb, b
b, b, b

Question 127

Colour matching experiments show that colours that which are perceptually _ can be caused by _ combinations of various physical wavelengths (referred to as _)
This is because different combinations of wavelengths can create _ patterns of activity across the three cone types

Answer 127

similar, different, metamers
comparable

Question 128

One receptor type cannot lead to colour vision because …

Answer 128

any two wavelengths can cause the same response in a monochromat (someone with only one cone type) simply by altering the intensity

Question 129

1 receptor type related to principle of univariance:
Absorption of a photon causes the _ effect in all receptors, no matter what the stimulating _ is
Once a photon of light is absorbed by a visual pigment molecule, the identity of the light’s wavelength is lost
The only information the neural system encodes/retains is the _

Answer 129

same, wavelength
total amount of light absorbed

Question 130

Imagine a hypothetical participant that only has a single cone type, who is exposed to two different test patches of light that can vary in both intensity and wavelength
Assume the absorption spectra (on the left) applies for their hypothetical singular cone pigment
Assume that 1000 photons reach the eye of our hypothetical monochromat from each light test patch
Their one pigment type absorbs 10% of the photons in 480 nm light (10% of 1000 = 100 photons)
Their one pigment type absorbs 5% of the photons in 600 nm light (5% of 1000 = 50 photons)
Thus, in this example, the 480 nm light would look brighter than the 600 nm light to them because this receptor would respond twice as strongly to it (would absorb 100 photons of the 480 nm light vs. 50 for the 600 nm)
This means that the receptor responds differently to the two stimuli in this first example, and thus our hypothetical monochrome can distinguish between them
However, if we now double the intensity of the 600 nm light to 2000 photons (and keep the 480 nm light the same, at 1000 photons), this receptor would now respond equally as strongly to both the 480 nm and 600 nm light (absorbing 1000 photons of light in both cases)
This means the pattern of activity in the receptor would be identical for both wavelengths in this second example
There would be no relative difference in the monochromat’s receptor response to these two different colours, which essentially means they cannot be distinguished

Question 131

Having at least _ receptor types (i.e. dichromats or trichromats) solves the problem we see in the previous two examples (with monochromats) by allowing the system to distinguish between _ colours
This is accomplished by way of providing some kind of relative _ across receptor types to responses across wavelengths, independent of _
This amounts to a difference in the overall pattern of receptor activity generated by particular wavelengths
Having 3 receptor types (i.e. trichromats) affords the perception of even more colours than just 2 receptors

Answer 131

2, some
difference, intensity

Question 132

The ratio of responses of two different pigments (associated with two different cone types) to two different wavelengths is always _, regardless of changes in _ / _

This relative difference in activity across receptor types helps us encode different _ as being distinct from each other

Answer 132

constant, intensity/brightness
wavelengths

Question 133

Suggested to Hering that our colour vision is ‘built’ upon four primary chromatic colours (_, _, _, _), which are arranged in opposing pairs
evidence = _ wheel

Answer 133

red yellow green blue
color

Question 134

Theory proposed by Hering (1800s) hypothesized that our colour vision arises from three primary mechanisms involving opponent-processes:
White/ _
Red/ _
Yellow/ _
Neural mechanisms respond to these three pairs of colours in an _ fashion
e.g. by increasing excitation (+) in response to red, and increasing _ in response to green

Answer 134

Black, green, blue
opposing; inhibition (-)

Question 135

one line of supporting evidence of opponent processing: _
Fixate on the image for 30 seconds, then look at something white
In the afterimage that you should (briefly) see, the red and _ squares seem to ‘switch places’ (as do the blue and _ squares)

Answer 135

Complementary afterimages
green; yellow

Question 136

Researchers performing single-cell recordings found _ neurons (1950s) which respond in an _ manner to one end of the spectrum and an _ manner to the other, located in the _ and _
Red: triggered by direct input from _ cones
Green: triggered by direct input from and _ cones
Blue: triggered by direct input from _ cones
Yellow: triggered by a combination of input from _ and _ cones

Answer 136

opponent, excitatory, inhibitory, retina, LGN
L; M;M S; M L

Question 137

Each theory describes different _ mechanisms in the visual system which contribute to colour vision
Trichromatic theory explains the responses of the _ in the _
Opponent-process theory explains _ response for cells connected to the _ further in the brain

Answer 137

physiological
cones, retina
neural, cones

Question 138

V4 was originally proposed as a sort of ‘_ _ ’

some areas show considerable overlap between neural mechanisms that seem to be processing _ and other _ properties (i.e. they aren’t ‘dedicated’ to colour perception)
_ (colour blindness) can cooccur with _, further suggesting such overlap

Answer 138

colour centre
colour, visual
Achromatopsia, prosopagnosia

Question 139

V4: there are specific areas that respond just. to _, _, _ as well as a combination of all 3 features

Answer 139

colour, shape, or texture

Question 140

Lafer-Sousa et al. (2016) showed participants video clips sometimes in colour and sometimes in black and white

Colour sensitive regions were found between the _ and _

Although colour and form are processed together/independently, the adjacent locations for processing these respective properties helps explain why so many people with achromatopsia (colour blindness) also have prosopagnosia (~72%)… because…

Answer 140

FFA, PPA
independently
damage to that general region can overlap with both ‘regions’

Question 141

Monochromats have a very rare hereditary condition which could be considered to produce ‘true’ colour-blindness
Have no functioning _ (only _), leading them to only perceive the world in tones of

Can match any wavelength in the spectrum by simply adjusting the _

Poor visual _ (no cones!), Very sensitive to _ _ (all rods!)

Answer 141

cones, rods, white, grey, and black
brightness
acuity, bright light

Question 142

Dichromats are missing _ of the three types of cones
There are three types of dichromats (
Unilateral dichromats has _ vision in one eye and _ in the other
Provides a unique opportunity to understand how dichromats ‘see’ colour (because…

Answer 142

one
protanopia, deuteranopia, and tritanopia)
trichromatic, dichromatic
the same brain can interpret/describe perception of colour from both perspectives)

Question 143

Protanopia affects
Missing the _ -wavelength pigment
AKA a form of _ colourblindness: red looks more _ and more/less bright
See short-wavelengths as blue
Neutral point occurs at 492nm
Above neutral point, they see _

Answer 143

long, red-green
green, less
yellow

Question 144

Deuteranopia affects
Missing the _ -wavelength pigment
AKA a form of _ colourblindness: green look more _
See short-wavelengths as blue
Neutral point occurs at 498nm
Above neutral point, they see _

Answer 144

medium, red-green, red, yellow

Question 145

Tritanopia
Missing the _ -wavelength pigment
AKA a form of _ colourblindness: difficulty separating blue and _, red and _
See short-wavelengths as blue
Neutral point occurs at 570nm
Above neutral point, they see _

Answer 145

short, blue-yellow, green, yellow
red

Question 146

colour boosting glasses
t/f: evidence they help a large proportion of colour deficient individuals is mixed, make a difference for some people

In theory, they typically work by _ out certain wavelengths (e.g. that might produce an overlapping response across cone types), allowing for more _ in the range of colours perceived

Answer 146

t
filtering, contrast

Question 147

Colour constancy: perception of colours as relatively _ in spite of changing _ sources
Sunlight has approximately _ amounts of energy at all visible _
Tungsten lighting (as is used in some bulbs) has more energy in the _ -wavelengths
Objects reflect different/similar wavelengths from these two sources

Answer 147

constant, light
equal, wavelengths
long,
different

Question 148

Figure 9.32 Determining what wavelengths are reflected from the green sweater under different illuminations. Light reflected from the sweater is determined by multiplying (a) the illumination of sunlight, incandescent, and LED lightbulbs times (b) the sweater’s reflectance. The result is (c) the light reflected from the sweater. The maximum of each of the curves in (c) has been set at the same level to make the wavelength distributions easier to compare

Question 149

Chromatic adaptation occurs with _ exposure to chromatic colours
When the stimulus colour selectively bleaches a specific cone pigment over an extended period of time, this results in a increase/decrease in sensitivity to the associated colour

This can occur in response to light sources, which contributes to colour constancy under different illuminations

Answer 149

prolonged, decrease

Question 150

Color constancy experiment by Uchikawa et al. (1989): Observers shown sheets of coloured paper under three lighting conditions:
Baseline (control): paper and observer in white light
Observer not (chromatically) adapted: paper illuminated by red light; observer by white
Observer (chromatically) adapted: paper and observer both exposed to red light

Baseline: green paper is seen as _
Observer not adapted: perception of green paper is shifted toward _
Observer adapted: perception of green paper is only _ shifted toward red (demonstrating partial colour constancy)

Answer 150

green
red
slightly

Question 151

The dominant colour of the lush scene in (a) is green. Looking at this scene causes adaptation to _ and increases/decreases the perception of green in the scene, as shown in (c).

The dominant colour of the arid scene in (b) is _. Adapting to this scene causes a increrased/decreased perception of yellow in the scene, as shown in (d).

Answer 151

green, decreases
yellow, decreased

Question 152

Colour constancy works best when an object is surrounded by few/many colours
Showing participants scenes with masked surroundings reduces ‘accuracy’ of colour perception reports
This is not fully understand but probably relates to the perceptual system having more information (data) available to make calculations and inferences about the environment (e.g. illumination conditions, etc.) that allow it to make relevant corrections when making judgments

Answer 152

many

Question 153

Hansen et al. (2006) showed participants photographs of fruits with characteristic colours against a grey background
When shown a spot of light which physically matched the grey background, participants accurately perceived the spot as being grey
However, when the fruits were adjusted to be grey, they were still perceived as being slightly coloured in a characteristic way (i.e. participants reported seeing a grey lemon as being slightly yellowish)
Interpreted as meaning _ _ of an object’s colour impacts _ perception

Answer 153

past knowledge, colour

Question 154

Achromatic colours are perceived as remaining relatively _ across different lighting conditions (_ _)
Lightness: the perception of the _ of achromatic colour (white, grey, black)
Part of the explanation for this is because perception of lightness is not related to the _ _of light reflected by an object, but rather the _

Answer 154

constant, lightness constancy
shade
total amount, percentage

Question 155

The intensity of light reaching the eye from an object depends on: (2)

Answer 155

The intensity of illumination (total amount of light hitting the object)
The object’s reflectance (the proportion of light reflected back by the object)

Question 156

The intensity of illumination _ _ of light hitting the object)
The object’s reflectance (the _ of light _ back by the object)

Answer 156

total amount
proportion, reflected

Question 157

light constancy is determined by _, not _

Answer 157

reflectance, intensity

Question 158

Figure 9.36: A black-and-white checkerboard illuminated by (a) tungsten light and (b) sunlight
Assume the white squares reflect back 90% of the light, the black squares 9%, The white squares always look white and the black always look black, regardless of how much total light there is in the environment… what matters is the proportion of light reflected by the squares

The _ _ states that two areas reflecting different amounts of light look the same if the ratios of their intensities are the same (at least when evenly illuminated…)

Answer 158

ratio principle

Question 159

The ratio principle states that two areas reflecting _ amounts of light look the same if the ratios of their intensities are the _ (at least when evenly illuminated…)

Answer 159

different, same

Question 160

When perceiving lightness under uneven illumination, the perceptual system must distinguish between: (2)

Answer 160

reflectance edge, illumination edge

Question 161

_ edges: edges where the amount of light reflected changes between two surfaces (between a/c in picture), i.e. changes in material
_ edges: edges where lighting of two surfaces changes (between a/b in picture), i.e. changes in lighting

Answer 161

Reflectance, Illumination

Question 162

But how do we distinguish reflectance edges from illumination edges:
The _ of objects (e.g. palm tree shape is obvious in shadow in picture at left), _ of shadows
etc.

Answer 162

meaningfulness, Penumbra

Question 163

Physical energy in the environment does not have _ qualities (light waves are not “coloured”)
Different _ systems have different experiences with perception
_ perceive colours outside that of human perception
t/f: and we therefore cannot ever truly understand what colours they “see”

Answer 163

perceptual
nervous
Honeybees, t

Question 164

t/f: hard to know what an infant really ‘sees’
Perception of light stimulus can vary on at least two dimensions: _, _ (CB)

t/f: you don’t need to perceive colours to differentiate colour stimuli

Answer 164

t
Chromatic colours, Brightness
t

Question 165

Bornstein et al. (1976): Looking time technique provided evidence that young infants have _ vision
Based on the pattern of _ and _ to _ wavelengths

Answer 165

colour
habituation, dishabituation, 3

Question 166

A cue approach to depth perception focuses on information in the _ image that is correlated with _ in the scene
We learn the connection between cue and depth (e.g. _)
Association becomes _through repeated exposure

Answer 166

retinal, depth
occlusion, automatic

Question 167

Oculomotor cues are based on sensing the _ of the eyes and _ tension
Convergence: _ movement of the eyes when we focus on far/nearby objects
Accommodation: the shape of the _ changes when we focus on objects at different distances

Answer 167

position, muscle
inward, nearby
lens

Question 168

_ cues: based on sensing the _ of the eyes and muscle tension
_ : inward movement of the eyes when we focus on nearby objects
_ : the shape of the lens changes when we focus on objects at different distances

Answer 168

Oculomotor
Convergence
Accommodation

Question 169

Monocular cues: information that can be based on the image from a _ eye
Pictorial Cues: sources of _ information that come from 2/3-D images, such as pictures
Occlusion: when one object partially _ another

Answer 169

single
depth, 2
covers

Question 170

_ cues: information that can be based on the image from a single eye
_ Cues: sources of depth information that come from 2-D images, such as pictures
_ : when one object partially covers another

Answer 170

Monocular
Pictorial
Occlusion

Question 171

monocular cues
Relative height:
Objects below the horizon that are higher in the field of vision are more _
Objects above the horizon that are _ in the visual field are more distant

Answer 171

distant
lower

Question 172

Determining the location of the horizon line is both important for understanding what is happening in a scene
This poses a challenge for _ -based object/scene recognition programs (e.g. the inverse projection problem)

Answer 172

computer

Question 173

Relative size: when objects are equal size, the closer one will take up more/less of your visual field

Answer 173

more

Question 174

Perspective convergence: parallel lines appear to come _ in the distance

Answer 174

together

Question 175

Atmospheric perspective: distance objects appear more ‘ _ ’
Occurs because the farther away something is, the more _ we have to look through to see it
Farther objects also tend to appear more ‘ _ ’ (for the same reason the sky looks blue, i.e. our atmosphere preferentially scatters short/long wavelengths and looking ‘through’ more of increases the ‘blueness’ this imparts on our perpeption)

Answer 175

fuzzy
air/particles
blue
short

Question 176

Texture gradient: equally spaced elements are more/less closely packed as distance increases
Shadows: helps enhance depth by indicating where _ are located

Answer 176

more
objects/features

Question 177

In contrast to the oculomotor and monocular cues just discussed, some monocular cues result from _

Answer 177

motion

Question 178

Motion parallax: close objects in direction of movement glide rapidly/slowly past but objects in the distance appear to move rapidly/slowly

Relates to the larger distance the image of something closer to us ‘travels’ across the retina, as compared to something farther away, in an equivalent amount of time

Answer 178

rapidly, slowly

Question 179

Motion parallax is relied heavily upon by some animals to judge _ (e.g. locusts quickly move their head back and forth before pouncing on prey to help them judge how far to jump, similar to some of Gibson’s ideas about self-produced information!)

Answer 179

depth

Question 180

Deletion and accretion: objects are _ or _ as we move relative to them
_ refers to covering an object
_ refers to uncovering an object

Answer 180

covered or uncovered
Deletion, Accretion

Question 181

We rely on lots of different depth cues, each of which have particular _ / _
we _ all of the available information to make the ‘best guess’

Answer 181

limitations/strengths
integrate

Question 182

Stereoscopic depth perception is constructed based on input provided to _ eyes

Answer 182

both

Question 183

Stereoscopic depth perception is the basis for how 2/3D glasses typically work
This has been accomplished by presenting same/different images to each eye using various techniques (e.g. shutters, red/blue filters, polarized lenses, etc.)

Answer 183

3D, different

Question 184

Corresponding retinal points are points on the retina that would _ if the eyes were superimposed on each other

Answer 184

overlap

Question 185

Binocular disparity refers to the _ in images from _ eyes
This difference can be described by examining corresponding _ _ on the two retinas
The _ is an imaginary sphere that passes through the point of focus

Answer 185

difference, 2
retinal points
horopter

Question 186

Objects on the horopter fall on _ _ on the retinas
e.g. both Julie and the tree fall on the horopter, therefore we know that they each fall on corresponding points on the retinas
This also tells us that they are both approximately the same _ away from the observer

Answer 186

corresponding points
distance

Question 187

Objects that are not on the horopter fall on _ points
These points make _ images
The degree to which these images deviate from corresponding points is the _ disparity (and can be represented by a calculation referred to as the _ _ _)

Answer 187

non-corresponding
disparate
absolute
angle of disparity

Question 188

Crossed disparity occurs whenever an object is _ to the observer than where they are looking (_ _ of the horopter)
Uncrossed disparity occurs whenever an object is _ away from the observer than where they are looking ( _ the horopter)

Answer 188

closer, in front
farther, behind

Question 189

An example of crossed disparity
The observer is looking directly at Julie
Bill is in front of Julie
The image of Bill is on the ‘_’ side of Julia’s image, in each eye of the observer

Answer 189

inside

Question 190

An example of uncrossed disparity
The observer is looking directly at Julie
Bill is behind Julie
The image of Bill is on the ‘_’ side of Julia’s image, in each eye of the observer

Answer 190

outside

Question 191

Determining whether disparity is crossed or uncrossed tells us whether something is behind or in front of our point of focus (i.e. the _ )

objects that are farther away from the horopter create smaller/larger angles of disparity, this information tells us how far away something is from the horopter

Answer 191

horopter
larger

Question 192

Stereopsis refers to _ information provided by _ disparity
Stereoscopes are viewers which use two pictures from slightly _ viewpoints
Random-dot stereograms have two identical patterns of ‘noise’ with one ‘piece of information’ _ in position

Answer 192

depth, binocular
different
shifted

Question 193

Random-dot stereograms allow researchers to isolate contributions to _ perception attributable to _ from those associated with other kinds of depth cues (e.g. monocular cues, etc,)
Julesz (1971) used this kind of stimuli to demonstrate experimentally that, even though participants find it very difficult, they can still extract _ information from these kinds of stimuli

Answer 193

depth, stereopsis
depth

Question 194

Neurons have been found that respond best to binocular disparity, referred to as binocular depth cells or _ _ cells
Are found in _, as well as along the _ and _ streams
Respond best to a specific degree of _ _between images on right and left ,
Disparity tuning curves: plot neural response as a function of _

Answer 194

disparity selective cells
V1, dorsal, ventral
absolute disparity, retinas
disparity

Question 195

DeAngelis et al. (1998) trained a monkey to indicate depth from disparate images
Disparity- _ neurons were activated by this process
Used microstimulation to activate different disparity-selective neurons
Monkey shifted judgment to _ stimulated disparity

Answer 195

selective
artificially

Question 196

Selective rearing experiment by Blake and Hirsch (1975): Cats reared by alternating vision between two eyes had few binocular neurons and were unable to use _ disparity to perceive _

Answer 196

binocular, depth

Question 197

what relationship is this: binocular disparity causes perception of depth (stereopsis)

Answer 197

stim -> perc

Question 198

what relationship is this: binocular disparity causes firing of disparity-selective cells

Answer 198

stim -> physl

Question 199

what relationship is this: elimination of disparity-selective neurons by selective rearing eliminates binocular depth perception

microstimulation of disparity-selective neurons changes depth perception

Answer 199

physl -> perc

Question 200

Visual angle refers to the _ of an object relative to the observer’s eye
There are 360 degrees around the circumference of the eye
1 degree = 1/360 of this circumference
That equates to an image of about 0.3 mm

As things get closer, the visual angle increases/decreases
As things get farther away, the visual angle increases/decreases

Answer 200

angle,
increases, decreases

Question 201

Figure 10.31: The “thumb” method of determining the visual angle: When the thumb is at _ length, whatever its width covers has a visual angle of about _ degrees.

t/f: the visual angle will change if the distance between the woman and the iPhone changes.

Answer 201

arm’s, 2
t

Question 202

t/f: Figure 10.34: The moon’s disk almost exactly covers the sun during an eclipse because the sun and the moon have the same visual angles.

Answer 202

t

Question 203

Holway and Boring (1941):
Comparison circle was always 10 feet away, Test circles ranged from 10-120 feet, Participants were asked to adjust the diameter of the comparison circle to match the test circle
P1: participants able to adjust the comparison circle to accurately match the test circle by relying on various _ cues (binocular disparity, shading, etc.), in addition to _ _

P2: the various depth cues were systematically eliminated;
responses produced by participants suggested they began relying on _ _ alone to judge size
Because this is/is not an accurate way to judge distance (because stimuli have smaller/larger visual angles as they get farther away/closer), accuracy in the second phase was very good/poor

Answer 203

depth, visual angle
visual angle
is notpoor

Question 204

Figure 10.33: Results of Holway and Boring’s experiment.
size of comparison circle based off of visual angle is much bigger/smaller compared to actual physical size

Answer 204

smaller

Question 205

size-distance scaling formula
S = __
S = perceived size, K = a scaling constant, R = retinal size
D = perceived distance
As an object moves farther away, we perceive it to remain a constant size because as the retinal size get smaller our perception of the distance increases
Note that because K is a constant, we can leave that out of our future discussion of this formula

Answer 205

K (R x D)

Question 206

If you create an afterimage (by starring at a large red dot in the textbook), it’s visual angle will remain _ as you move your eyes across the room
However, if you look at something distant (and therefore cause the afterimage to appear to fall on a distant object), you tend to perceive it as smaller/larger than if it falls on something close
In effect, you’re holding the retinal size constant but varying the perceived distance, which conforms to predictions based on this simple formula: S = R x D

Answer 206

constant
larger

Question 207

t/f: other contributions beyond size of retinal image and perceived distance influence size judgments
e.g. texture gradients (pictures on the left), relative size (pictures on the right)

Answer 207

t

Question 208

The Müller-Lyer illusion: Straight lines with inward fins appear shorter/longer than straight lines with outward fins
Lines are actually the same length

explanation: illusion involves misapplied _ - _ scaling (of a form that works in _ -D but is misapplied for _ -D objects)

Answer 208

shorter
size-constancy, 3, 2

Question 209

If equivalently sized images are formed on the retina, and one is judged to be farther away, it will be perceived as larger/smaller (thus, the ‘inside corner’ is judged as larger because it is perceived as being an equivalent size but farther away)

Answer 209

larger

Question 210

One problem with the size-constancy scaling explanation of the Müller-Lyer Illusion is that similar illusions can be produced which don’t convey any sense of _

e.g. the ‘dumbbell’ version of this illusion below, and another version using books

Answer 210

depth

Question 211

Another explanation of muller-lyer: conflicting cues theory, which states that our perception of line length depends on two factors:

The conflicting cues are integrated into a compromised perception of the length

Answer 211

The actual length of the vertical lines
The overall length of the figure

Question 212

The Ponzo illusion: Horizontal rectangular objects are placed over railroad tracks in a picture
The far rectangle appears smaller/larger than the closer rectangle but both are the same size
Misapplied size-constancy scaling may offer an explanation (same retinal image formed, yet perceived to be at different _, will be perceived as being different actual sizes)

Answer 212

larger
distances

Question 213

Two people of equal size appear very different in size in an _ room
The room is constructed so that the shape looks like a normal room when viewed with one eye
The actual shape has the left corner twice as far away as the right corner

Answer 213

Ames

Question 214

Size-distance scaling = plausible explanation for ames room,S = R x D
Observer thinks the room is rectangular, which would mean the Women would be the _ distances away
Woman on the right has smaller visual angle (R)
The perceived distances (D) of the two women are the same
Therefore, the perceived size (S) of the women on the right is smaller/larger

Answer 214

same
smaller

Question 215

ames room possible factor: relative size
Perception of size depends on size relative to _ _
One woman fills the distance between the top and bottom of the room
The other woman only fills part of the distance
Thus, the woman on the right appears taller/shorter

Answer 215

other objects
taller

Question 216

The moon illusion refers to the fact that it appears larger/smaller on the horizon than when it is higher in the sky (despite having the same visual angle)

One possible factor: apparent-distance theory: horizon moon surrounded by depth cues, moon higher in the sky _

While the visual angle of the moon is the same, the perceived distance is different (horizon is perceived as farther away/closer than the sky), resulting in a difference in perceived size (S = R x D)

Answer 216

larger
has none
farther away

Question 217

Animals with frontal eyes that have fields which significantly overlap afford good _ depth perception

Animals with lateral eyes have poor stereoscopic depth perception (but gain a more _ view)

Answer 217

stereoscopic
panoramic

Question 218

Bats can rely on _ -like processes to perceive depth using sound waves

Answer 218

sonar

Question 219

Granrud (1985): Showed infants objects A and B during the familiarization period, then objects C and D during the test period
Hypothesized that showing infants a larger version of the same toy they had previously seen (object C) would be perceived as being closer if they relied on familiar size to judge distance (and remembered object B)
_ behaviour supported their prediction

Answer 219

Reach

Question 220

Granrud (1985): Tested 5 and 7 month olds using the stimuli
5-month olds showed _ _ for reaching towards either object (50/50)
7-month olds reached for the object that appears closer/farther 59% of trials
Suggests infants develop the ability to use shadows to guide depth perception at approximately _ months

Answer 220

no preference
closer
7

Question 221

Two kinds of definitions for ‘sound’:
Physical definition: _ changes in the air or other medium
Perceptual definition: the experience we have when we _

Answer 221

pressure
hear

Question 222

Loud speakers:
The diaphragm of the speaker moves in/out, pushing air molecules together called _ (compression)

The diaphragm also moves in/out, pulling the air molecules apart called _ (expansion)

The cycle of this process creates alternating _ and _ pressure regions that travel through the air

Answer 222

out, condensation
in, rarefaction
high and low

Question 223

Pure tones are tones which create changes in _ pressure that can be described by a single _ wave

Basic building block of sounds, used extensively in research yet relatively _ in the natural environment

Answer 223

air, sine
rare

Question 224

Frequency: number of _ within a given time period
Measured in _ : 1 Hz is one cycle/second
Perception of pitch is related to _
Tone height is the increase in _ that happens when _ is increased

Answer 224

cycles
Hertz (Hz)
frequency
pitch, frequency

Question 225

_ : number of cycles within a given time period
Measured in hertz : 1 Hz is one cycle/ _
Perception of _ is related to frequency
_ height is the increase in pitch that happens when frequency is increased

Answer 225

Frequency
second
pitch
Tone

Question 226

Amplitude: difference in _ between high and low peaks of wave
Perception of amplitude is known as _
The decibel (dB) scale is used as the measure of _
The decibel scale relates the _ of the stimulus with the psychological experience of _

Answer 226

pressure
loudness
loudness
amplitude, loudness

Question 227

_ : difference in pressure between high and low peaks of wave
Perception of _ is known as loudness
The _ is used as the measure of loudness

Answer 227

Amplitude
amplitude
decibel (dB) scale

Question 228

Both pure and some complex tones are _ tones (tones in which the waveform _)
Periodic complex tones consist of a number of pure tones called _
Fundamental frequency is the _ rate and is also referred to as the _ _
Additional harmonics are multiples of the _ _ (referred to as _ harmonics)

Answer 228

periodic, repeats
harmonics
repetition, first harmonic
fundamental frequency, higher harmonics

Question 229

frequency spectras plot _ of complex sounds

Answer 229

harmonics

Question 230

Human hearing range: _ - _ Hz
The audibility curve shows the threshold of hearing in relation to _
Changes on this curve show that humans are most sensitive to _ to _ Hz (important for understanding speech!)

Answer 230

20 to 20,000
frequency
2,000, 4,000

Question 231

The auditory response area falls between the _ _ and the threshold for _ (point at which sounds we can ‘feel’ sounds, where they can cause _)
It shows the range of response for human _

Answer 231

audibility curve, feeling, pain
audition

Question 232

Equal loudness curves can be determined by using a standard 1,000 Hz tone (using two dB levels: 40 and 80)
Participants match the perceived loudness of all other tones to the 1,000 Hz standard
Tones sound _ at 40 dB for high and low frequencies than the rest of the tones in the range

Answer 232

softer

Question 233

Pitch – _ quality we describe as _ and _

Answer 233

perceptual, high and low

Question 234

Timbre: all other perceptual aspects of a sound besides _ _ _ (LPD)
Effect of missing fundamental frequency: removal of the first harmonic results in a sound with the same perceived pitch, but with a different _
Timbre is closely related to the _ _ _ (HAD) of a tone
Attack of tones: _ of sound at the beginning of a tone
Decay of tones: _ in sound at end of tone

Answer 234

loudness, pitch, and duration
timbre
harmonics, attack, and decay
buildup
decrease

Question 235

_ : all other perceptual aspects of a sound besides loudness, pitch, and duration
Effect of missing _ _: removal of the first harmonic results in a sound with the same perceived pitch, but with a different timbre
_ is closely related to the harmonics, attack, and decay of a tone
_ of tones: buildup of sound at the beginning of a tone
_ of tones: decrease in sound at end of tone

Answer 235

Timbre
fundamental frequency
Timbre
Attack
Decay

Question 236

outer ear contains

Answer 236

pinna, auditory canal

Question 237

The _ helps with sound location
The _ _ is a tube-like structure, Protects the _ membrane (the eardrum) at the end of the canal

Resonance occurs when sound waves that are reflected back from the _ membrane interact with sound waves _ the canal, which can reinforce (increase the intensity of) certain frequencies
The auditory canal amplifies frequencies between _ and _ Hz (which is the canal’s _ frequency, or the frequency that is most reinforced)

Answer 237

pinna, auditory canal, tympanic
tympanic, entering
1,000 and 5,000, resonant

Question 238

3 ossicles
smallest. orlargest bones in body

Answer 238

malleus, incus, stapes
smallest

Question 239

The middle ear is a two cubic centimetre cavity separating the _ from _ ear
Contains the three ossicles
Malleus (hammer): moves due to the vibration of the _ membrane
Incus (anvil):
Stapes (stirrup): transmits vibrations of the _ to the _ ear (via the _ window of the _)

Answer 239

inner, outer
tympanic
transmits vibrations of the malleus
incus, inner, oval, cochlea

Question 240

While the outer and middle ear are filled with _, the inner ear is filled with _ that is more/less denser than air

Pressure changes in air transmit well/poorly into the denser medium (the liquid); Ossicles act to amplify the vibration for better _ to the fluid

The middle ear muscles also dampen the ossicles’ vibrations to protect the inner ear from potentially damaging stimuli when exposed to high _ sound waves

Answer 240

air, fluid, more
poorly
transmission
amplitude

Question 241

Two properties of the middle ear assist with amplifying the sound:
By concentrating the vibrations of the small/large tympanic membrane onto the much larger/smaller stapes
By being _ and therefore creating ‘lever action’ which amplifies a _ force

Answer 241

large, smaller
hinged, small

Question 242

The _ is the main main structure of the inner ear, and the location at which _ of pressure waves occurs

Divided by the cochlear partition into two sections: the upper half is referred to as the _ _ and the lower half the scala _

Answer 242

cochlea, transduction
scala vestibuli, tympani

Question 243

The organ of Corti is located within the _ partition and contains inner and outer _ cells, which are the receptors for _

_ membrane vibrates in response to sound and supports the _ _ _
_ membrane extends over the hair cells

Answer 243

cochlear, hair, hearing
Basilar, organ of Corti
Tectorial

Question 244

The ‘back and forth’ motion of the oval window transmits vibrations to the liquid inside the cochlea:
Puts the basilar membrane into an ‘_ _ ’ motion
Puts the tectorial membrane into a ‘ _ _’ motion

Answer 244

up-and-down
back and forth

Question 245

The _ (parts of the outer hair cells) bend in response to movement of _ _ _ and the _ membrane
Movement in one direction opens _ channels in the _ links (parts of the stereocilla)
Movement in the other direction _ the ion channels

Answer 245

stereocilia, organ of Corti, tectorial
ion, tip
closes

Question 246

Phase locking: nerve fibres firing at/near _ of sound wave, and are thus “locked in phase”
Groups of fibres fire with periods of _ _, creating a pattern of firing
overall pattern of activity (on average, across all nerve fibres) that is produced closely matches the _ properties of the pressure wave

Answer 246

peak
silent intervals
physical

Question 247

Békésy’s Place Theory of Hearing: the frequency of sound is indicated by the place on the _ _ _ that has the highest/lowest firing rate

Békésy determined this through direct observation of the _ membrane in cadavers, and building a model of the _ using the physical properties of the basilar membrane

He noticed that the basilar membrane’s vibration was like a _ wave

Answer 247

organ of Corti, highest
basilar, cochlea
travelling

Question 248

The functionality of the basilar membrane can be related to it’s _ properties, as the base of the membrane is:
Three to four times narrower/wider than at the apex
100 times _ than at the apex
While vibration occurs over a large portion of the membrane for most pressure waves, the place that vibrates the most depends on the _

Answer 248

physical
narrower, stiffer
frequency

Question 249

Because the amount of _ on the basilar membrane is a function of _, we can think of the cochlea as effectively functioning like a _
Coffee bean filter analogy

Answer 249

displacement, frequency, filter

Question 250

The cochlea shows an orderly map of frequencies along its length, which can be referred to as a tonotopic organization
Apex responds best to _ frequencies
Base responds best to _ frequencies
_

Answer 250

tonotopic
low
high

Question 251

_ tones can be used to determine the threshold for specific frequencies measured at single neurons, which can then be used to produce neural frequency _ curves
Frequency to which the neuron is most sensitive is the _ frequency
Frequency tuning curves of cat auditory nerve fibres demonstrate the _

Answer 251

Pure, tuning curves
characteristic
selectivity/specificity

Question 252

Békésy used basilar membranes isolated from cadavers and his results showed no difference in response for close frequencies that people can distinguish

New research with live membranes shows that the entire _ hair cells respond to sound by slight _ and a change in _
These cells are referred to as the _ _

Answer 252

outer, tilting, length
cochlear amplifier

Question 253

Damage to the _ hair cells impacts the frequency tuning curve, demonstrating the role they play when intact
Higher threshold = lower sensitivity = worse hearing

Answer 253

outer

Question 254

Place theory suggests that pitch perception is based on the relation between a sound’s _ and the place along the _ membrane that is activated

Answer 254

frequency, basilar

Question 255

The ‘effect of the missing fundamental’: even if the fundamental is missing, we can generally still perceive it
How could we perceive a 200 Hz pitch if the fundamental was missing, and therefore that place on the membrane never vibrated?
assuming the _ also vibrate the membrane, and that the spacing of the intervals is informative of the fundamental
i.e. a second and third harmonic at 400 and 600 Hz allows the system to ‘recognize’ the 200 Hz fundamental

Answer 255

harmonics

Question 256

The frequency tuning curves of auditory nerve fibres tend to be more narrow at _ frequencies, and wider at _ frequencies

Answer 256

lower, higher

Question 257

The lower harmonics produced by tones tend to create distinct neural responses, which are referred to as _ harmonics
In contrast, higher harmonics tend to create neural responses that are/are not clearly distinguishable, and are referred to as _ harmonics
In theory, this should mean that lower harmonics are more useful for perceiving _, as compared to higher harmonics

Answer 257

resolved, are not, unresolved, pitch

Question 258

the _ spacing (or repetition rate) may carry useful information about pitch
Along similar lines, phase locking carries similar temporal information that may assist with _ perception
Pitch perception only occurs for sounds above ~ _ Hz, which…
…is also about the upper limit of _ locking (supporting the idea that the two are related)
…also reinforces the idea that the distinction between the _ and _ properties is an important one!

Answer 258

interval, pitch, 5000, phase
physical, perceptual

Question 259

The auditory nerve sends signals generated in the cochlea to various subcortical structures while en route to primary auditory cortex, including:

Acronym: SONIC MG

Answer 259

Cochlear nucleus
Superior olivary nucleus (brain stem)
Inferior colliculus (midbrain)
Medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus)

Question 260

Primary auditory cortex (auditory receiving area, or _ , in _ lobe) can be divided up into three general subregions:
_, _, _ area (CBP)

Answer 260

A1, temporal, Core area
Belt area
Parabelt area

Question 261

Temporal coding with phase locking is effective up to _ Hz in auditory _ _, but only up to _ - _ Hz in auditory cortex

Answer 261

5,000, nerve fibres, 100-200

Question 262

how is pitch represented in cortex:
Evidence for pitch neurons that respond to the same _ frequency, regardless of what _ is heard
Evidence for a greater responses to pitch information in _ auditory cortex

Answer 262

fundamental, harmonic, anterior

Question 263

Noise-induced hearing loss: Acute exposure to very _ noises can severely damage the hair cells in the _ _ _
Various standards for noise levels at work can be set to protect workers
_ noise can also cause hearing loss

Answer 263

loud, organ of Corti
Leisure

Question 264

Hidden hearing loss: individuals may have normal _ (e.g. thresholds) in a standard hearing test using _ tones played in isolation, yet have difficulty perceiving more _ ‘real-word’ sounds
Standard measurements of _ have more to do with the _ (hair cells) themselves, whereas functioning of the auditory nerve may be more important for processing more _ sound-based stimuli
If the hair cells are functioning normally yet the auditory nerve is not, this could produce _ hearing loss

exposing mice to 100 dB sound for two hours produced a relatively short-lived deficit in _ _ functioning, whereas auditory nerve function remained _ after the hair cells had already largely recovered

Answer 264

results, pure, complex
thresholds, receptors, complex
hidden
hair cell, compromised

Question 265

_ : Results from the cumulative effects of exposure to noise over time
Greatest loss at high/low frequencies
Affects _ more severely
Can be caused by exposure to some _ (which damage the hair cells)

Answer 265

Presbycusis
high
males
drugs

Question 266

Cochlear implants place electrodes in the cochlea to (directly) electrically stimulate _ nerve fibres
The device is made up of:
A _ worn behind the ear
A _ processor
A transmitter mounted on the _ bone
A receiver surgically mounted on the _ bone

Answer 266

auditory
microphone, sound, mastoid, mastoid

Question 267

Olsho et al. (1988): produced infant audibility curves for three-month olds
Relied on observers to indicate whether or not infant heard each stimuli (based on behaviour, e.g. orienting towards stimuli, eye moments, facial expressions, etc.)
t/f: The infant audibility curve comes to more closely approximate the adult curve over time

DeCasper and Fifer (1980): found evidence that infants’ recognize their mother’s voice as early as _ days after birth

Answer 267

t
two

Question 268

Unlike with the retina in vision, information about location is/is not contained in the receptor cells for hearing

On average, people can localize sounds most accurately directly in front/behind of them (and least accurately to their _ and _ their heads)

Answer 268

is not
front, sides, behind

Question 269

Locating sounds in space is referred to as _ localization
Auditory space surrounds an observer and exists _ there is sound
_ coordinates: left to right position
_ coordinates: up and down position
_ coordinates: position relative to observer

Answer 269

auditory
wherever
Azimuth, Elevation, Distance

Question 270

_ cues are created based on how sound waves interact with our head/ears
Similar to vision, we can distinguish between _ cues and _ cues
Binaural cues: location cues based on the comparison of the signals received by the left and right ears (interaural time and level differences) to determine the _ (i.e. left-right) position of sounds

Answer 270

Location, binaural, monaural
azimuth

Question 271

Interaural level difference (ILD): _ cue related to differences in sound _ levels reaching each ear

Reduction in intensity occurs for _ frequency sounds for the far (relative to audio source) ear, due to the head casting an _ shadow
This effect does not occur for low frequency sounds because the distance, or spacing, between waves (i.e. frequency) for low frequency sounds is relatively _, in comparison to the object casting the acoustic shadow (i.e. your head)

Answer 271

binaural, pressure
high, acoustic
large

Question 272

Interaural time difference (ITD): binaural cue related to differences in the _ of when a sound reaches each ear
When distance to each ear is the same, there is no difference in timing (ITD = _ )
When the source is to the side of the observer, the times will differ
Behavioural experiments show that _ is most effective for localizing low/high frequency sounds

Answer 272

timing, 0
low
ITD

Question 273

ILD and ITD are useful binaural cues for judging azimuth and distance
t/f: because time and level differences can be the same at a number of different elevations, ILD and ITD cannot reliably indicate the elevation of a sound source

This phenomenon is referred to as the ‘ _ _ _’, in reference to the (many) conical space(s) around the ears for which various possible pairs of points on an ‘imaginary cone’ would produce the same ITD and ILD

Answer 273

t
cone of confusion

Question 274

_ cues are location cues based on signals reaching a single ear
These are particularly important for judging _ , given that ILD and ITD are not effective for doing so since they may be zero in many different locations
The monaural cue we primarily rely on is referred to as a _ cue, because it involve using information related to the distribution of intensities of a particular spectrum of frequencies experienced
These occur because the _ and _ affect the intensity of sound waves entering the system

Answer 274

Monaural
elevation
spectral
pinna, head

Question 275

Frequency spectra recorded by a microphone placed inside the ear for the same stimulus being played at different elevations
difference in intensities at different points in the frequency spectrum related to the difference in _

Answer 275

elevation

Question 276

Experiments investigating spectral cues:
Gardner and Gardner (1973): found that changing the pinnae (by smoothing out nooks/crannies using a molding compound) resulted in participants producing worse localization judgments about _

Answer 276

elevation

Question 277

Hofman et al. (1998): introduced a mold that participants wore for an extended period of time to determine initial changes in perception, as well as track how participants adapted to the change (see next slide)
Participants were measured for performance localizing sounds coming from different places, then were fitted with a mold that changed the shape of their pinnae
On day 0, performance was poor for elevation though unaffected for azimuth, By day 5, performance for elevation judgments began improving, By day 19, performance for elevation was close to original performance
Once the molds were removed, performance remained high
This suggests that there might have been two somewhat distinct neural ‘ _ ’ that were somehow created (possibly involving different neurons), one for each set of cues, which the participants seemed to be able to flexibly switch between

Answer 277

configurations

Question 278

ILD and ITD work for judging _
ILD works best for _ frequency sounds
ITD works best for _ frequency sounds
_ cues help us judge elevation; Multi-modal cues are also relevant (i.e. vision)
Idea of self-produced information can also apply here, as we are constantly moving our heads (which can modify many of these parameters) and thus accumulating more ‘ _ ’

Answer 278

azimuth
high, low
Spectral
data

Question 279

The Jeffress neural coincidence model proposes that some neurons receive input from _ ears and respond to _ (are essentially ITD detectors)

These are hypothesized to have a similar mechanism as _ detectors, which makes a judgment as to whether or not two incoming signals are received simultaneously

These _ _ only fire if they receive input from both axons _, or in other words only fire if they receive signals originating from each ear simultaneously

The specific coincidence detector (i.e. neuron) that fires codes _ (neuron 3 only fires when a particular ITD is present, e.g. 5 ms)

Answer 279

both, ITD
reichardt
coincidence detectors, simultaneously
ITD

Question 280

eg. 1: sound originating directly in front of listener
both ears get stimulation at same time, signals start journey from ear to _ at same time and end at the _ spot at the _ time

Answer 280

cortex, same, same

Question 281

Example 2: sound originating to the right of a listener
The signal from the _ ear gets a ‘head start’ (on beginning it’s journey to the cortex, because it is stimulated first), relative to the signal from the left ear
The point at which they ‘meet’ is therefore skewed to the left/right

Answer 281

right, left

Question 282

_ tuning curves can be examined to see if they provide supporting evidence for the Jeffress neural coincidence model
Barn owls have neurons with narrow/wide tuning curves which respond best to specifics ITDs
t/f: consistent with what would be expected based on the idea of the Jeffress neural coincidence model

Answer 282

ITD
narrow
t

Question 283

Compared to barn owls, ITD tuning curves are much _ for mammals (curves shown for neurons in superior olivary nucleus)
This is/is not consistent with what would be expected based on the Jeffress neural coincidence model (because there isn’t enough specificity for a single neuron to code for ITD)

Answer 283

wider
is not

Question 284

It may be more likely that mammals use _ coding to encode ITD for the purpose of localizing sounds (whereas birds may use something more akin to _ coding)
Neurons in the left hemisphere respond best to sound from the right/left
t/f: Any single neuron would be insufficient to resolve location though the distributed activity of _ could provide enough data
Conceived of in this way, location of sound can be indicated by the ratio of responding for two types of neurons; consider how this is similar to how typical colour vision is encoded by the relative difference in response across three pigment types, or perceived direction of motion on the basis of pooled input from MT neurons

Answer 284

population, specificity
right
t, many

Question 285

1) Sounds from the far left would activate right/left hemisphere sensitive neurons strongly and left hemisphere sensitive ones much less
2) Something from straight ahead would activate _ and _ neurons equally

Answer 285

right
both left and right sensitive neurons

Question 286

Area A1 involved in _ sound
Neff (1956): Cats rewarded with food for approaching boxes emitting a sound, no longer able to localize sounds after bilateral lesions to A1 (even after 5 months of training!)
Nodal et al. (2010): lesioning A1 in ferrets detrimentally impacted (but did/did not eliminate) their ability to localize sounds
Malhorta and Lomber (2007): deactivating (via cooling) A1 in cats impairs their sound localization

Answer 286

locating
did not

Question 287

Posterior belt area also involved in _ sound
Recanzone (2000): single-cell recordings of monkeys revealed neurons that only respond to sounds coming from particular locations in space
Some neurons of this nature were also found in other parts of A1, though the neurons in the posterior belt area had more specificity (i.e. were contingent on more fine-grained divisions of space)

Answer 287

locating

Question 288

Posterior belt area also involved in locating sound
Lomber and Malhotra (2008): temporarily disputing the posterior belt (again, via cooling) disrupts localization
This did/did not affect their ability to distinguish between differences in patterns of timing related to sound stimuli

Answer 288

did not

Question 289

Anterior belt involved in perceiving more _ sound
Rauschecker and Tian (2000): while some neurons in A1 respond to pure tones, those in the anterior belt respond to more complex sounds (e.g. monkey vocalizations)
Lomber and Malhotra (2008): Cooling this area in cats disrupts their ability to discern differences in timing patterns related to sound (but not _ )

Answer 289

complex
localization

Question 290

Where, or _ stream, extends from the _ belt to the _ lobe and _ cortex -> Used to _ sounds

What, or _ stream, extends from the _ belt to the _ lobe and _ cortex -> Used to _ sounds

Answer 290

dorsal, posterior, parietal, frontal, locate
ventral, anterior, temporal, frontal, identify

Question 291

Can distinguish between two kinds of sound waves that reach your ears:
_ sound: sound that reaches the listener’s ears straight from the source
_ sound: sound that is reflected off of environmental surfaces and then to the listener

When a listener is outside, most sound is _
Inside a building, there is _ and _ sound

Answer 291

Direct, Indirect
direct, direct and indirect

Question 292

Experiment by Litovsky (1997): listeners sat between two speakers, a lead speaker and a lag speaker
When sound comes from the lead speaker followed by the lag speaker with a long delay, listeners hear one/two sounds
When the delay is decreased to 5-20 msec, listeners hear the sound as only coming from the _ speaker
Referred to as the _ _
Reflects a sort of threshold for attributing differences in timing, which helps us understand why slight differences in direct and indirect sound waves reaching our ears doesn’t (always) lead to the perception of _ sounds

Answer 292

two
lead
precedence effect
distinct/separable

Question 293

_ acoustics refers to the study of how sounds are reflected in _ (e.g. how the design of concert halls influence the perception of sound)

_ time: the time it takes sound to decrease to 1/1000th of its original pressure
If it is too long, sounds seem ‘ _ ’
If it is too short, sounds seem ‘ _ ’
Ideal times are around _ seconds

Answer 293

Architectural, rooms
Reverberation
muddled, dead, 2

Question 294

_ time: time between when sound leaves its source and when the first reflection arrives
Best time is around 20 ms
Bass ratio: ratio of low to middle frequencies reflected from _
High/low bass ratios are best
Spaciousness factor: fraction of all the sound received by listener that is _
High spaciousness factors are typically perceived as most _

Answer 294

Intimacy
surfaces
High
indirect
pleasing

Question 295

_ scene: the array of all sound sources in the environment
Auditory Scene Analysis: process by which sound sources in the auditory scene are separated into _ perceptions
Does not happen at the _ since simultaneous sounds are processed together in the pattern of vibration of the basilar membrane

Answer 295

Auditory
individual
cochlea

Question 296

Heuristics help to perceptually organize stimuli (similar to idea of Gestalt principles for grouping objects based visual properties)
Onset time: sounds that start at different _ are likely to come from different _
Location: a single sound source tends to come from one _

Individual sources of sound also tend to move in a _ and _ way (e.g. a car driving by)
Similarity of timbre and pitch: similar sounds are grouped together (e.g. a flute will typically continue sounding like a flute throughout an entire piece of music)

Answer 296

times, sources
location
smooth, continuous

Question 297

μs = microsecond
1 second = 1 000 000 μs
The absolute values on these tuning curves represent the magnitude of ITD
0 = signals that reach both ears at the _ time
Small values = signals that reach each ear with _ difference in timing
Large values = signals that reach each ear with _ difference in timing
The sign (+ or -) for the values on these tuning curves indicates which ear the signal reached first

Answer 297

same, less, more

Question 298

The ITD values on these tuning curves are calculated by subtracting the time at which the signal reaches the ipsilateral ear from the time at which the signal reaches the contralateral ear
e.g. if the sound reaches the ipsilateral ear 2 μs after stimulus presentation, and the contralateral ear 1 μs after stimulus presentation, that would be: 2 - 1 = +1 μs
Positive values = neurons that respond best to sounds that reach the _ ear first
Negative values = neurons that respond best to sound that reach the _ ear first

Answer 298

contralateral
ipsilateral

Question 299

When a single instrument alternates rapidly between streams of low and high notes, the listener perceives it as two separate melodies
This is referred to as implied polyphony or compound melodic lines by musicians, or _ _ segregation by psychologists

Answer 299

auditory stream

Question 300

Experiment by Bregman and Campbell (1971): Alternated high/low tones at different speeds
When stimuli played slowly, listener perceives high and low tones alternating within a single stream
When played quickly, listener perceives two _ streams, one high and one low
Demonstrates grouping role of both similarity (based on pitch) and timing

Answer 300

separate

Question 301

Another demonstration of grouping by pitch: the red dots represent the same note being played repeatedly, the blue dots an ascending series of notes
Two distinct streams of notes are perceived when pitches are relatively different, though the streams get ‘melded’ when the _ are similar (as they crossover), producing what some listeners describe as a ‘galloping’ effect

Answer 301

notes

Question 302

Experiment by Deutsch (1975): demonstrates the scale illusion or melodic channeling
Stimuli were two sequences alternating between the right and left ears
Listeners perceive two smooth sequences by grouping the sounds by similarity in _
Because sounds with the same frequency usually come from the same _ in the natural environment, this heuristic often allows us to accurately separate sound sources

Answer 302

pitch
source

Question 303

_ _ _: sounds that occur in rapid succession usually come from the same source
This principle was illustrated in auditory streaming

_ _: sounds that stay constant or change smoothly are usually from the same source

Answer 303

Proximity in time
Auditory continuity

Question 304

Warren et al. (1972): Tones presented that were interrupted by either gaps of silence or noise
In the silence condition, listeners perceived that the sound _ during the gaps
In the noise condition, the perception was that the sound _ behind the noise
Similar to Gestalt principle of good continuation

Answer 304

stopped, continued

Question 305

Deutsch (1999): Effect of past experience on melody perception
Melody is played with notes alternating between octaves (e.g. “Three Blind Mice”)
Listeners find it difficult to identify the song in a control condition in which that is all they hear
If they are first _ with hearing a more ‘typical’ (i.e. within the same octave) version of that melody, they can then hear it in the _ version
Demonstrates the role of experience and memory, and in particular melody schema, in interpreting melodies

Answer 305

primed, modified

Question 306

_ capture (aka the ventriloquist effect) occurs when an observer incorrectly perceives a sound as coming from a location suggested by visual information
Represents an example of vision ‘superseding’ _

In the two-flash illusion, seeing a single dot flash on a screen is misinterpreted as two flashed dots if accompanied by two beeps
Represents an example of _ ‘superseding’ _ input

Answer 306

Visual, audition
audition, visual

Question 307

Coordinated receptive fields refer to neurons which respond to _ stimuli (e.g. sound and vision) that originate in common regions of space
e.g. a neuron in _ lobe might respond to visual information in the lower left of your visual field, and sounds coming from that same point in space
Thaler et al. (2011): used expert blind echolocators to create clicking sounds
These stimuli activated _ cortex in the blind participants, but not the controls (with normal vision)

Answer 307

multimodal
parietal
visual