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Midterm 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What kind of bond is formed between water molecules?

A

Hydrogen bonds

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2
Q

What’s cell theory?

A

All living organisms are made of cells

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3
Q

What are the elements of life and why are they so important?

A
  • Oxygen
  • Carbon
  • Hydrogen
  • Nitrogen
  • They’re the building blocks of molecules that are essential for life
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4
Q

Which atom is the basis of every biological molecule?

A
  • Carbon
  • Life is said to be “carbon-based”
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5
Q

What are elements?

A
  • Chemically pure substance that cannot be broken down
  • Elements are made of one type of atom
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6
Q

Which element is said to be a friendly atom?

A

Hydrogen because it interacts with everyone

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7
Q

Which element is said to be a noble gas?

A

Helium because it doesn’t interact with anyone

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8
Q

What are atoms made up of?

A
  • Protons
  • Neutrons
  • Electrons
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9
Q

What does the nucleus of an atom contain?

A

It contains protons and neutrons

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10
Q

What kind of charge do protons have?

A

Positive charge

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11
Q

What kind of charge do neutrons have?

A

No charge

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12
Q

What kind of charge do electrons have?

A

Negative charge

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13
Q

What kind of mass do protons have?

A

Mass of 1 amu

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14
Q

What kind of mass do electrons have?

A

Mass of 0 amu

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15
Q

What kind of mass do neutrons have?

A

Mass of 1 amu

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16
Q

Where are electrons located?

A

In the orbitals or energy shell

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17
Q

What’s the octet rule?

A

We always need to worry about whether there are 8 electrons in the shells

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18
Q

Isotopes of each element vary in what?

A

The number of neutrons

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19
Q

What happens if 2 atoms collide with each other?

A

They may form a chemical bond which will fulfill their need of having their outer energy shelled

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20
Q

How do elements fill their valence shells?

A

They gain or lose electrons to acheive a stable electron configuration

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21
Q

Which elements have a stable electron configuration because they have a full outer or valence shell?

A
  • Helium
  • Neon
  • Argon
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22
Q

What do the electrons in the outermost shell determine?

A

The atom’s energetic stability and tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms

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23
Q

What’s a covalent bond?

A
  • Sharing of electron pairs
  • Can be very strong
  • Ex: H2O
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24
Q

What’s a hydrogen bond?

A
  • Sharing of an H atom
  • Is strong
  • Individually they’re very weak but together they’re very strong
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25
Q

What’s an ionic bond?

A
  • Attraction of opposite charges
  • Strong
  • Ions are most stable when they can pair up with another ion (of opposite charge) and form a neutral molecule
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26
Q

What’s a hydrophobic interaction?

A
  • The interaction of nonpolar substances in the presence of polar substances
  • Weak
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27
Q

What kind of reaction forms molecules?

A
  • Chemical reactions
  • They can also break down molecules
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28
Q

What do chemical reactions do?

A

They convert reactants into a product -> synthesis of molecules

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29
Q

Which bonds are strong in water and which aren’t?

A
  • Covalent bonds = strong in water
  • Ionic bonds = weak in water, they can change in water
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30
Q

Hydrogen peroxide and water are what?

A

Compounds (composed of at least 2 different elements)

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31
Q

What’s a double covalent bond?

A
  • Ex: O = O
  • By sharing 2 electrons elements fulfill the octet rule
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32
Q

What kind of covalent bond does a polar molecule have?

A

A polar covalent bond

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33
Q

Can atoms be polar?

A

No, only molecules can be polar

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34
Q

How do ionic bonds form?

A
  • By electrical attraction
  • The more electronegative (en) atom steals an electron
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35
Q

Water is made up of what kind of bonds?

A

Hydrogen bonds

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36
Q

What are the rules of attraction for hydrophilic and hydrophobic interaction?

A
  • Hydrophilic interaction = polar + polar
  • Water is polar so polar molecules are attracted to water
  • Hydrophobic interaction = non-polar + non-polar
  • Nonpolar molecules are more attracted to one another than to water
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37
Q

What’s water’s temperature capacity like?

A

Water has a high heat capacity

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38
Q

What are the properties of water?

A
  • It has high heat capacity
  • It has high heat of vaporization
  • It’s an awesome solvent
  • Water is cohesive (water molecules stick to each other - surface tension - insects can glide on water)
  • Water is adhesive (stick to other molecules - drinking out of a straw)
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39
Q

What’s a partial charge?

A

A charge that influences atomic interactions

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40
Q

How do the bonds in water define its form?

A
  • Gaseous water -> not a lot of bonds
  • Liquid water -> more bonds
  • Solid water -> a lot of bonds
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41
Q

What do unstable ions do to make themselves stable?

A

By forming ionic bonds

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42
Q

What’s the relationship between protons and electrons in atoms?

A
  • Each electron has a negative charge equal to the proton’s positive charge
  • In uncharged, neutral atoms, the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus is equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus
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43
Q

What’s a forward reaction?

A
  • It’s a synthesis reaction
  • Consists of building a molecule from reactants (can be reversible)
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44
Q

What’s a decomposition reaction?

A

Consists of breaking down a molecule into its component parts

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45
Q

What’s the dehydration synthesis reaction?

A
  • It combines monomers to make polymers, water is released
  • Dehydrating the product/reactants to produce a product in water
  • One of the products is always water
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46
Q

What’s a peptide bond?

A
  • When 2 molecules that make up a protein collide, they will form a chemical bond called peptide bond
  • The bonding of a Nitrogen and Carbon molecule
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47
Q

What are 2 major categories of macromolecules?

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins
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48
Q

What’s a Glycosidic bond?

A

Where Glucose and Fructose come together and make Sucrose (table sugar) -> reaction that has to happen to have sugar

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49
Q

What’s the hydrolysis reaction?

A

It breaks down macromolecules into subunits

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50
Q

What’s the function of enzymes?

A

They are specialized proteins that reduce the amount of energy that’s needed to break or build a bond

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51
Q

How do enzymes help with the dehydration synthesis and the hydrolysis reactions?

A
  • Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions are slow so and enzymes speed up the reaction
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52
Q

What’s the basic unit of a carbohydrate?

A

(CH2O)n
- Where n = number of carbons in the molecule

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53
Q

What’s the covalent bond between monosaccharides called?

A

A glycosidic bond

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54
Q

What would happen if we didn’t have enzymes?

A

Every reaction in the body would happen when it could and not when needed

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55
Q

What do polysaccharides do with regards to monosaccharides?

A

They “store” monosaccharides

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56
Q

Which organism usually has unbranched polysaccharides?

A

Plants - > starch

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57
Q

What two organisms have branched polysaccharides and what are these called?

A
  • Animals: Glycogen
  • Plants: Amylopectin
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58
Q

What’s Glycogen?

A

Readily accessible stored energy that can be accessed when we’re exercising and aren’t able to eat (storages of energy)

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59
Q

What are the 3 types of lipids?

A
  • Fats
  • Steroids
  • Phospholipids
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60
Q

What are lipids?

A
  • Comprised of fats, steroids and phospholipids
  • They are all hydrophobic and insoluble in water
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61
Q

What is the function of fats?

A

Primarily used for metabolism

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62
Q

What’s the function of steroids?

A

They form vitamins and hormones

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63
Q

What’s the function of phospholipids?

A

They form cell membranes

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64
Q

What 2 things combine together to form a fat?

A

Glycerol and Fatty acids

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65
Q

What are the 3 different types of fats?

A
  • Saturated fatty acids
  • Unsaturated Trans Fats
  • Unsaturated Cis Fats
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66
Q

What’s matter?

A

Any substance that occupies space and has mass

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67
Q

What are Saturated fatty acids?

A
  • Bad for humans -> increase risk of heart disease
  • Increases cholesterol
  • Aren’t good for anything besides storing energy
  • Found in bacon
  • Have no double bonds, so no kinks or bends in them…only single bonds
  • Solid at room temperature
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68
Q

What are Unsaturated Trans fats?

A
  • Less dangerous for humans because they bend a bit and change their shape
  • Called trans because of the 2 hydrogen atoms on inside and outside are opposite to each other
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69
Q

What are Unsaturated Cis Fats?

A
  • Better for humans because they have a bent configuration
  • Called cis because the 2 hydrogen atoms in the middle are on the same side
  • High omega-3
  • The more cis unsaturated fat you have in something the more liquid it’ll be
  • Moderate intake can reduce risk of heart disease
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70
Q

What kind of fat do you want for better health?

A
  • Polyunsaturated cis fats
  • A type of Unsaturated cis fat
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71
Q

Why do marine animals have fat in their fur and feathers?

A

Because fats are great for insulation -> keep animals warm in the cold water

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72
Q

What are phospholipids?

A
  • They’re amphipathic molecules composed of saturated and unsaturated fats
  • They have hydrophilic heads (made up of Diacylglycerol and Phosphate) and hydrophobic tails (made up of fatty acids)
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73
Q

What is the amphipathic property of phospholipids essential for?

A

It’s essential to form cellular membranes

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74
Q

What are cellular membranes comprised of?

A

Phospholipid bilayers

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75
Q

What is the steroid of Cholesterol useful for?

A

Cholesterol is a precursor for the synthesis of hormones and vitamins

Ex of hormones:
- Estrogen
- Testosterone
Ex of vitamins:
- Vitamin d3

You need Cholesterol in your diet or else you can throw off a hormonal imbalance

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76
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

DNA & RNA

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77
Q

Describe DNA (function, location, structure, sugar)

A
  • A polymer of nucleic acids
  • It’s all the information that’s needed to build a cell
    Function: Carries genetic information
    Location: Remains in the nucleus
    Structure: Double helix
    Sugar: Deoxyribose
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78
Q

Describe RNA (function, location, structure, sugar)

A

Function: Involved in protein synthesis
Location: Leaves the nucleus
Structure: Usually single-stranded
Sugar: Ribose

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79
Q

What are the pyrimidines of DNA?

A

Cytosine and Thymine

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80
Q

What are the purines of DNA?

A

Adenine and Guanine

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81
Q

What are the pyrimidines of RNA?

A

Cytosine and Uracil

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82
Q

What are the purines of RNA?

A

Adenine and Guanine

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83
Q

All cells have DNA and RNA, but not all cells have a ___?

A

Nucleus

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84
Q

What are nucleic acids built from?

A
  • Nucleotide subunits
  • 1 phosphate base and a sugar backbone
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85
Q

What’s a double helix?

A

two anti-parallel DNA molecules linked together by hydrogen bonds

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86
Q

What are the bonds that form the structure of a DNA molecule?

A
  • For the backbone (phosphate and sugar): Covalent bonds
  • For the rungs (A/G and T/C): Hydrogen bonds
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87
Q

What’s the pairing rule in a DNA molecule?

A
  • The purines link with the pyriminides (A with T and G with C)
  • It’s a ratio: if you know the amount of A and the amount of G, you can figure out the amount of T and C
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88
Q

What are the different types of proteins?

A
  • Digestive enzymes (amylase and pepsin)
  • Transport (hemoglobin)
  • Structural (tubulin and keratin)
  • Hormones (insulin and thyroxine)
  • Defense (immunoglobulins)
  • Contractile (actin and myosin)
  • Storage (legume storage proteins and egg whites)
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89
Q

What are proteins made up of?

A
  • Proteins are polypeptides
  • Made up of amino acids
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90
Q

How many different amino acids are there?

A

There are 20 different side groups so 20 different amino acids

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91
Q

What are the 3 different types of amino acids?

A
  • Nonpolar (ex: Glycine)
  • Polar (ex: Glutamine)
  • Electrically charged
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92
Q

Which types of amino acids are hydrophobic and which ones are hydrophilic?

A
  • Nonpolar amino acids = hydrophobic
  • Polar and electrically charged amino acids = hydrophilic
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93
Q

What are the two types of electrically charged amino acids?

A
  • Acidic (ex: aspartic acid)
  • Basic (ex: Lysine)
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94
Q

What are the structures of non-polar amino acids?

A
  • Amino acids have a hydrocarbon side-chain
  • Exception: Glycine
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95
Q

What are the structures of polar amino acids?

A

Polar amino acids have side-chains with either:
- partial charge
- net positive charge
- net negative charge

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96
Q

What’s a peptide bond?

A
  • A type of covalent bond
  • A polypeptide of more than 2 amino acids linked together
  • Peptide bonds are the only thing that can be recognized by a giant enzyme in cells to form proteins
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97
Q

What’s a polypeptide?

A
  • A polymer of amino acids
  • A protein is a folded polypeptide
98
Q

What’s the primary protein structure?

A

A sequence of a chain of amino acids

99
Q

What’s the secondary protein structure?

A

Hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern (Beta pleated sheet or Alpha helix)

100
Q

What’s the tertiary protein structure?

A

3-dimensional folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions

101
Q

What’s the quaternary protein structure?

A

Protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain

102
Q

What could happen if you mutate one of the amino acids?

A
  • You can create a change in gene
  • Creates a huge change in the protein and the cell
  • This could cause diseases such as sickle cell anemia
103
Q

What’s sickle cell anemia?

A
  • Caused from changing amino acid from acidic to non-polar
  • Hemoglobin is very necessary (necessary for carrying oxygen to the lungs)
  • This disease changes shape in hemoglobin and changes shape of cell
104
Q

What does potential energy mean?

A
  • When objects are at rest
  • Ex: Mass and gravity
105
Q

What does kinetic energy mean?

A
  • When objects are in motion
  • Ex: Velocity
106
Q

What are the 5 types of energy?

A
  • Potential
  • Kinetic
  • Chemical
  • Radiant
  • Thermal
107
Q

What’s an example of chemical energy?

A

Chemical bonds and ATP

108
Q

What’s an example of radiant energy?

A

Sunlight (photosynthesis)

109
Q

What’s an example of thermal energy?

A

Sunlight (thermal regulation)

110
Q

What do producers (ex: plants) do with radiant energy?

A

They will transform things like radiant energy into chemical energy

111
Q

What are producers?

A

Plants

112
Q

What are consumers?

A

Animals

113
Q

What are decomposers?

A
  • Fungi
  • Bacteria
  • Worms
114
Q

What’s energy flow?

A

It’s basically order at the expense of the universe

115
Q

What’s a Joule?

A
  • It measures the amount of heat required to raise temperatures of water
  • It measures the energy required to vertically lift an object
  • Its measures the energy released when that same object falls back
    down to the ground
116
Q

What’s a calorie?

A

-The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of water
- Unit of energy represented on food labels
- Consumed by cells to do work
- Extra calories can be stored as fat

117
Q

What’s the metabolic rate?

A

The rate at which the body uses energy

118
Q

What are the 2 major types of energy we consider?

A
  • The potential energy of objects at rest
    -The kinetic energy of objects in motion
119
Q

What’s chemical potential energy?

A
  • It exists between atoms in a molecule, and can be released to perform work, such as catalyzing a chemical reaction
120
Q

What do chemical reactions require?

A

Collisions

121
Q

As the temperature drops, what happens to the probability of collisions to happen?

A

It goes down

122
Q

What’s energy?

A
  • Energy is defined by the ability to do work
    (Gibbs free energy; G)
    Ex: breaking a bond, making a bond, moving particles, etc.
123
Q

What’s the 1st law of thermodynamics?

A
  • Its states that energy can be neither
    created nor destroyed (conservation of energy)
  • Energy can change forms, and energy can
    flow from one place to another
  • A particular consequence of the 1st law is that the
    total energy of a “closed” system does not change
124
Q

What does order require?

A

Energy transfer

125
Q

Describe the equation of Gibbs free energy and heat

A

Change in free energy (energy released used to do work) = Change in enthalpy (change in order - increase in order within the system) minus Temperature times Change in entropy (change in disorder - decrease in order within the system)

126
Q

What’s the 2nd law of thermodynamics?

A
  • Energy transfer is not 100% efficient
  • Entropy cannot be transformed into useful energy
127
Q

True or False? The change in free energy can only be greater than 0

A

False. The change in free energy can be greater than or less than 0

128
Q

What has to happen for the change in free energy to be less than 0?

A
  • If the reaction breaks atoms apart, the change in entropy is large (∆S>∆H) and releases free energy to perform work
129
Q

What has to happen for the change in free energy to be more than 0?

A

The reaction bonds atoms together, the change in enthalpy is large (∆H>∆S) and potential energy is stored rather than released

130
Q

What’s an exergonic reaction?

A
  • When the change in free energy is less than 0 (∆G < 0)
  • Change in entropy is large
  • This is a spontaneous reaction because the reactants have more free energy than the products
  • With this reaction, energy is released
  • Example of breaking a chemical bond
131
Q

What’s an endergonic reaction?

A
  • When the change in free energy is more than 0 (∆G > 0)
  • Change in enthalpy us large
  • This is not a spontaneous reaction because you have to put a lot of chemical energy into it since the reactants have less free energy than the products
  • With this reaction, energy is added
  • Have a very high energy barrier
  • Example of forming a chemical bond
132
Q

What kind of energy requirement do both exergonic and endergonic reactions have?

A

Because of the transition state, they both have an activation energy requirement

133
Q

What’s the transition state?

A

A state where the atoms are being pulled on in some way

134
Q

For humans to work, where does free energy have to be?

A

It has to be around 0 constantly

135
Q

What does energy transfer do in our bodies?

A
  • Changes the shape of proteins and structures within our cells
  • Creates machines
  • Moves chromosomes
  • Makes cells crawl when going through the blood looking for a virus to engulf
136
Q

How do enzymes work with chemical reactions?

A
  • They facilitate them
  • Enzymes can make or break a bond
137
Q

What’s the organism’s metabolism?

A

All the chemical reactions of an organism

138
Q

What are 2 metabolic pathways?

A
  • Anabolic
  • Catabolic
139
Q

What’s the anabolic pathway?

A
  • Pathway where small molecules assemble into large ones
  • Energy is required
140
Q

What’s the catabolic pathway?

A
  • Pathway where large molecules break down into small ones
  • Energy is released
141
Q

What’s cellular respiration?

A

A series of chemical reactions that transform chemical energy stored in glucose into chemical energy stored in ATP

142
Q

What does ATP consist of?

A
  • Adenine
  • A sugar
  • 3 phosphate groups
143
Q

How do you use the stored energy of ATP?

A

You have to break a bond which releases energy

144
Q

What are the 2 functions of enzymes?

A
  1. They can bind the reactants and they like to bind them
  2. They’re specialized for breaking ATP down into ADP and using that chemical energy to perform the work needed to catalyze the reaction that’ll turn the reactants into a product
145
Q

What are different kinds of work ATP can do in the cell?

A
  • Mechanical work -> cell motility
  • Transporting a solute across a membrane against a concentration gradient
  • Chemical work -> breaking/making bonds by changing shape of enzyme
146
Q

What’s an example of ATP acting as a transport of a solute across a membrane against a concentration gradient?

A

Sodium-Potassium Pump

147
Q

What’s an energy barrier?

A
  • If a molecule needs to break a bond, it’ll force its atoms apart to break the bond which produces an unstable state
  • Energy is hence needed to get to a new stable state (products)
  • Without energy barriers, everything would break apart
148
Q

What does a catalyst do with the amount of free energy required for a chemical reaction, such as the activation energy needed to get past the transition state?

A
  • It reduces it
  • The activation energy to get past the transition state is reduced by an enzyme
149
Q

What’s phosphorylation?

A

When a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to a enzyme

150
Q

How is ADP produced?

A

When a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to a enzyme (phosphorylation), that energy can be used to lower activation energy

151
Q

What would transferring chemical potential energy to an enzyme through ATP do?

A

It’ll allow it to generate this transition state that’s necessary for the chemical reaction to occur

152
Q

What’s the active site?

A

It’s where the substrate binds to the enzyme

153
Q

What do enzymes do with substrates?

A

They change them into products

154
Q

What’s an induced fit (with enzymes)?

A
  • The binding of the substrate and the enzyme is an induced fit and once the reaction is catalyzed, the products don’t fit into the enzyme anymore
  • This is dependent on potential chemical energy
155
Q

What do enzymes do and what to they not do?

A
  • Enzymes speed up the rate of a reaction (or product production) by reducing the energy needed for the reaction to occur
  • Enzymes do not create reactions that would not occur in their absence, they just speed them up
156
Q

What would happen if there were no enzymes?

A
  • Everything would happen at the rate that it could occur thermodynamically which might either be too fast or too slow for survival
  • Everything would be determined by temperature, due to everything being based on collisions (diffusion)
157
Q

What’s the degradation reaction?

A

Using PO4 (phosphate) to break a bond rather than water (H20)

158
Q

What does cell theory state?

A
  1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
  2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms 3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells
159
Q

What kind of molecules are the essential building blocks of the macromolecules of living organisms

A

Organic molecules

160
Q

How did the synthesis of organic molecules happen?

A

Inorganic molecules and water combined with radiant energy

161
Q

What could organic molecules be?

A
  • Amino acids
  • Carbohydrates
  • Nucleic acids
  • Organic acids and bases
162
Q

What evolved first, RNA or DNA?

A

RNA

163
Q

What was the first cell?

A

Self replicating RNA enclosed in a phospholipid membrane

164
Q

Why did the first cell have a phospholipid membrane

A

As a way of isolating chemicals from the environment

165
Q

What’s volvox?

A

A unicellular organism with specialized cells

166
Q

What does unicellular mean?

A

Means they’re capable of living independently

167
Q

What happens as a cell increases in size?

A
  • Its surface area-to-volume ratio decreases
  • Surface area is key to the exchange of energy with the environment
168
Q

What are prokaryotic cells and what are they comprised of?

A
  • Evolved first
  • Bacterial cell
  • Has a cell membrane, cell wall, ribosome, chromosome (DNA) and flagellum
  • Doesn’t have a nucleus, mitochondria or vacuole
169
Q

What are eukaryotic cells and what are they comprised of?

A
  • An animal or plant cell
  • Has a nucleus, mitochondria, microtubules, microfilamenta, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, vacuole
170
Q

Why are plant cells different from animal cells?

A
  • They have chloroplasts (similar to mitochondria)
  • A central vacuole
  • A cell wall
171
Q

Why are cells said to be tiny ecosystems?

A

Because they’re adapted to their environment and lifestyle

172
Q

What’s the function of the plasma membrane?

A
  • A barrier between the cell and the environment
  • It’s based on the phospholipid bilayer
  • It has cholesterol
  • It’s adaptable (can be folded up to fit the surface area)
173
Q

What’s the function of the nucleus?

A
  • Contains a library of information needed for cellular function
174
Q

How is information from a DNA turned into a protein?

A

The information in the DNA is transcribed in the mRNA which is translated into a polypeptide

175
Q

What is said to be the aqueous environment of the cell?

A

The cytoplasm

176
Q

What are organelles?

A
  • A collection of factories and assembly lines found in the cell
  • They have membranes which isolate chemical reactions or ensure that metabolic pathways involving many chemical reactions are efficient
177
Q

What are the different types of organelles?

A
  • Endoplasmic reticulum
  • Golgi body
  • Mitochondria
  • Lysosome
  • Vacuole (for cells with cell walls)
178
Q

Where is water stored in cells with cell walls?

A

In the vacuole

179
Q

What’s the function of mitochondria?

A

They’re specialized for the synthesis of ATP

180
Q

What are the functions of endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi?

A
  • They’re a protein synthesis and transport system
  • They’re both connected to the nucleus and to each other
181
Q

What’s the purpose of membranes forming microenvironments?

A

This allows chemical reactions to occur without effecting the rest of the cell

182
Q

What’s the cytoskeleton?

A
  • It’s composed of specialized rods that grow and shrink
  • The plastic organization of the cytoskeleton controls:
  • cell shape and cell movement
  • transport within cells
  • exerts force to move chromosomes or cleave membranes
183
Q

Rods of the cytoskeleton are another example of what?

A

Polymers

184
Q

How do actin monomers affect the length of microfilaments?

A
  • Actin monomers bound to ATP increase the length of the microfilament
  • The energy transferred from ATP to ADP releases the monomer, and the microfilament then shrinks
185
Q

How does tubulin-GTP affect the length of microtubules?

A
  • Tubulin-GTP increases the length of the microtubule (rescue)
  • Release of tubulin-GDP causes shrinkage (catastrophe)
186
Q

Where do cilia and flagellum come from?

A
  • They’re built from microtubules and motor proteins that use ATP to apply force
  • The motor proteins act as little propellers
187
Q

What’s a ribosome?

A
  • A huge enzyme composed of many of proteins and RNA molecules
  • The ribosome builds a protein by lowering the activation energy for forming a peptide bond
188
Q

What are the 2 microscopes used to study cells?

A
  • An electron microscope (provide very detailed information of dead cells - nanometer resolution)
  • A super-resolution light microscope (study live cells with 100s nanometer resolution)
189
Q

What can the GFP found in jellyfish help us with?

A

Identifying different cells with its fluorescent property

190
Q

Colour variations in a fluorescent protein called GFP were produced through what?

A

Mutations, protein engineering

191
Q

What are the components of the plasma membrane?

A
  • Phospholipid
  • Cholesterol
  • Integral proteins
  • Peripheral proteins
  • Carbohydrates
192
Q

What’s the plasma membrane fluid mosaic model?

A

Lipids + proteins adorned with carbohydrates

193
Q

How do membranes form?

A

Spontaneously in an aqueous environment

194
Q

What factors determine the rate of diffusion?

A
  • The concentration gradient (steep/shallow concentration)
  • The mass of the diffusing molecules (size/shape)
  • The temperature of the system (higher temp = higher diffusion
  • The density of the solvent (water vs honey)
  • Distance travelled (smaller cells allow for more diffusion)
    For membranes:
  • Solubility, surface area and thickness (1 vs 2 membranes)
195
Q

Describe diffusion across the plasma membrane

A
  • Gases (CO2 & O2) can diffuse across the membrane down across a gradient over time
  • They can exchange because they aren’t polar
196
Q

What kind of atoms can’t diffuse across the membrane on their own?

A

Ions (because they’re charged)

197
Q

How do cells maintain a charge potential across the membrane that keep the environment suitable?

A
  • They control the number of ions that come in and out of the cell
  • This is done through gated channel proteins and carrier channel proteins
  • The gated channels sense the concentration and maintain a concentration gradient
  • Each carrier protein is specific to one substance, and the rate of transport is therefore limited by the number of carrier channels in the membrane
198
Q

What’s osmosis?

A
  • The movement of free water molecules through a semipermeable membrane according to the water’s concentration gradient across the membrane, which is inversely proportional to the solutes’ concentration
  • Water stops crossing the membrane when the concentration of molecules is equal from inside and outside (equilibrium state)
199
Q

What are the 3 different states of tonicity?

A
  • Hypotonic
  • Isotonic
  • Hypertonic
200
Q

What happens if a saline solution is hypotonic?

A

Water will go in your cells and they will explode (causing internal haemorrhaging)

201
Q

What happens if a saline solution is hypertonic?

A

Water will leave your red blood cells and they will shrink

202
Q

Which form of tonicity is best for your cells?

A
  • Isotonic solutions
  • Equilibrium between water leaving cell and coming in cell
203
Q

What are some energy exchanges (cellular respiration) that happen between cells and the environment?

A
  • Anaerobic Respiration (Glycolysis) -> cytoplasm and environment
  • Aerobic Respiration (Ox Phosphorylation) -> mitochondrion and environment
  • Photosynthesis -> Chloroplast with sun and CO2
204
Q

What do you lose with oxidation?

A
  • Electrons from the molecule
  • Reduction of potential energy
  • In synthesis of ATP there’s oxidation
205
Q

What’s unique about Hydrogen atoms and their protons, neutrons and electrons?

A

Hydorgen atoms lack neutrons

206
Q

What do you gain with reduction?

A
  • Electrons
  • Gain in potential energy
207
Q

Cells use what to transfer electrons from one molecule to another in a series of coupled reactions?

A

The electron carrier NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)

208
Q

What’s substrate phosphorylation?

A
  • For synthesis of ATP
  • The enzyme binds a phosphorylated molecule
    (substrate) and ADP), and releases an un-
    phosphorylated molecule (product) and ATP
209
Q

What are ATP’s 3 phosphate groups?

A
  • Gamma phosphate
  • Alpha phosphate
  • Beta phosphate
210
Q

By increasing the concentration of hydrogen ions, you can decrease the reaction that forms what?

A

ATP

211
Q

Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of
what cells?

A
  • Prokaryotic
  • Eukaryotic
212
Q

What’s the carbohydrate that the cell uses most effectively?

A

Glucose

213
Q

What’s glycolisis?

A
  • Taking glucose, ripping it apart and turning it into 2 molecules
  • For this to happen, you need to put energy into the system which is done by using the energy stored in ATP, which will result in one glucose having 2 ATP molecules (pyruvate)
  • It’s essential for red blood cells because they don’t have mitochondria and need glycolysis for ATP synthesis
214
Q

What are similarities between mitochondrion and chloroplast?

A
  • They have similar structures
  • They both have specialized, membrane bounded environments that both favour chemical reactions and also keep the reactions coupled so that the synthesis of ATP is efficient
215
Q

What kind of cellular respiration occurs in mitochondria?

A

Aerobic respiration

216
Q

What happens to pyruvate in mitochondrion?

A

Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria, and is oxidized to produce CO2, NADH and Acetyl CoA

217
Q

Which step in the citric acid cycle is most important?

A
  • Step 5
  • It produces ATP, GTP and CO2
218
Q

What molecules does the
Oxidative phosphorylation use?

A

NADH (3)
FADH2 (1)

219
Q

What are the 2 paths that electrons can move through in the electron transport chain?

A
  • Move into the channel and help with chemiosmosis as they enter
  • Be passed off to these things diffusing inside the membrane
220
Q

What is proportional to
the number of protons
pumped across the inner
mitochondrial membrane?

A

The number of ATP
molecules ultimately
obtained by chemiosmosis

221
Q

Where is the electron transport chain located in eukaryotes VS prokaryotes?

A
  • In the inner membrane of mitochondria in eukaryotes
  • In the plasma membrane of prokaryotes
222
Q

What’s ATP synthase?

A

It’s a large and complex enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of 90% of ATP

223
Q

Where do H+ ions diffuse through the membrane?

A

They diffuse (from high to low) through the membrane in the channel (facilitated diffusion)

224
Q

What is the potential energy of glucose used for?

A
  • 34% of the potential energy in each glucose molecule is used for ATP/GTP synthesis
  • The remainder is released as heat
225
Q

What are the 2 stages of photosynthesis?

A
  • light dependent reactions
  • the Calvin cycle
226
Q

What’s the overall function of the light-dependent
reactions in photosynthesis?

A
  • It’s to convert solar energy
    into chemical energy in the form of NADPH and ATP
  • This chemical energy supports the Calvin
    cycle reactions and fuels the assembly of sugar molecules (Glucose)
227
Q

What are the inputs from the environment for plants during photosynthesis?

A
  • Water (6 H20)
  • 6 CO2
228
Q

What are the outputs from the environment for plants during photosynthesis?

A

Oxygen (6 O2)

229
Q

How do different wavelengths relate to the energy of photons?

A
  • The longer the wavelength, the less energy the photon carries
  • Short, tight waves carry the most energy
230
Q

What initiates the process of photosynthesis?

A
  • Light energy initiates the process of photosynthesis when pigments absorb specific wavelengths of visible light
  • Energy levels lower than those represented by red light
    are insufficient to raise an orbital electron to an excited
    state
  • Energy levels higher than those in blue light will physically tear the molecules apart, in a process called bleaching
231
Q

What happens in the photosystems part of photosynthesis?

A
  • In the photosystems, protein complexes and pigment
    molecules work together to produce NADPH and ATP
  • The reaction centre contains special chlorophyll a molecules that can undergo oxidation upon excitation; they can actually give up an electron
  • It’s at this step in the reaction
    centre during photosynthesis that light energy is converted into an excited electron
232
Q

Describe the process of using CO2 and H2O for photosynthesis

A
  • Oxygen (O2) + ATP + NADH coupled with CO2 will make Sugar + ADP + NAD
  • Sugar + ADP + NAD couple with H2O will make Oxygen (O2) + ATP + NADH
233
Q

How bacteria synthesize ATP?

A
  • Bacteria don’t have mitochondria or chloroplasts, but use the plasma membrane and cell wall in a similar way to couple reactions needed for ATP synthesis
  • Bacteria also generate ATP using glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle, but in the cytoplasm
234
Q

Compare aerobic respiration and photosynthesis

A

Aerobic respiration vs Photosynthesis:
- Light dependent vs Chlorophyll becomes electron light dependent
- Starts with C6H12O6 vs Ends with C6H12O6
- O2 is a reactant vs O2 is a product
- H2O and CO2 are products vs H2O and CO2 are reactants

235
Q

What are similarities between aerobic respiration and photosynthesis?

A
  • 3-carbon intermediates
  • ATP synthase, Hydrogen pumps
  • ATP and ADP electron carriers
236
Q

How do things on earth consume CO2?

A
  • Animals and other organisms respire CO2
  • Volcanoes emit CO2
  • Water, land and plants absorb CO2
237
Q

What happens when fire kills plants?

A

CO2 increases and O2 decreases

238
Q

What’s the relationship between CO2 and temperature?

A

CO2 traps heat energy from sunlight

239
Q

What would happen if global warming went up a few degrees (ex: 0.5 ºC)?

A
  • It could mean tens of millions more people worldwide exposed to life-threatening heat waves, water shortages and coastal flooding
  • Weather will be unpredictable and crops will fail -> have to be genetically engineered
  • It could mean no more coral reefs and Arctic summer sea ice
240
Q

What would be an example of a worse case scenario of the greenhouse effect?

A
  • Venus
  • Atmosphere dense in CO2 and extremely hot
241
Q

What kind of macromolecule is an enzyme?

A

A protein

242
Q

What macromolecule contains ATP as a subunit?

A

nucleic acids or DNA or RNA

Biology (4 decks)

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