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Human Nutrition > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What cells must use glucose as an energy source?

A

Neurons and RBCs

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2
Q

In what form is glucose stored in the body

A

Glycogen

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3
Q

Where is glucose stored in the body

A

some stored in the liver, a lot is stored in the muscels

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4
Q

Where is glucose released from when needed in the blood

A

Hydrolyzed from glycogen in the liver, glycogen in the muscle isn’t released back into the blood stream

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5
Q

What happens if excess glucose enters the body

A

either used for energy or converted to fat in the liver

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6
Q

Def: Gluconeogenesis

A

conversion of certain amino acids to be used for energy

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7
Q

What occurs in ketosis

A

fat is used to provide fuel when CHO isn’t low, fat fragments join to from ketone bodies which can be used to fed the brain

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8
Q

What hormones regulate blood glucose homeostasis

A

Insulin which causes glucose to move into cells and glucagon which promotes glucose from the liver to move into the blood

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9
Q

How do blood glucose hormones promote uptake or release

A

bind to liver and if uptake muscle cells too

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10
Q

Negative feedback loop of blood glucose homeostasis

A
  1. a person eats, blood glucose rises
  2. High blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release insulin
  3. Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose into the cells to store it as glycogen and the conversion of excess into fat for storage
  4. As the body’s cells use glucose, blood levels decline
  5. low blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release glucagon into the blood stream
  6. Glucagon stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood
  7. Blood glucose begins to rise
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11
Q

Def: Type 1 diabetes

A

Genetic form of diabetes, individual is unable to produce insulin

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12
Q

Def: Type 2 Diabetes

A

Caused by obesity and certain type of excess fat, individual is unable to respond to insulin creating a positive feedback loop

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13
Q

Def: Hypoglycemia (and what symptoms it causes)

A

Low blood sugar, caused by an excess of insulin in the blood stream, often a result of poorly managed diabetes. Can cause weakness, rapid heartbeat, sweating, anxiety, hunger, and trembling

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14
Q

Def: Hyperglycemia

A

High blood sugar, high amount of glucose stuck to RBCs, causes damage to tissues, heart disease and stroke, neural problems, vision and hearing loss, infections, amputations, kidney failure

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15
Q

Def: Oral Glucose tolerance test

A

Assesses your ability to handle a glucose load and regulate blood sugar

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16
Q

Process of a Oral Glucose Tolerance Test

A
  1. Overnight fast
  2. Ingestion of 75g of glucose as an oral load
  3. blood glucose response measured over 2-3h
  4. Often accompanied by hormonal measurements
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17
Q

Def: Glycemic Response

A

Speed of glucose absorption, blood glucose rise, and speed of return to normal

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18
Q

Def: Glycemic Index

A

Flood classification based on glycemic response, high index = greater glycemic response = more sugar

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19
Q

Def: Glycemic Load

A

Glycemic index x carbohydrate amount

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20
Q

What are the common harms of sugar

A
  1. Nutrient deficiencies: Displace calories that contain nutrients
  2. Dental caries: Sugars fermented to acid by bacteria erodes enamel on teeth
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21
Q

Factors that increase negative effects of sugar on teeth

A

Time in mouth, sticky foods, frequency of consumption

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22
Q

Why is sugar seen to make childern hyperactive

A

Parental expectations and often associated with events that promote hyperactivity

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23
Q

What are the recommended intakes of sugar

A

No UL, No more than 25% of total daily intake,

less than 10% is good, less than 5% is better

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24
Q

Def: Artificial Sweeteners

A

Non-nutritive sweeteners, moderate dose is considered safe, high does may cause protentional negative health effects

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25
Q

Stevia

A

A herbal sweetener, accepted by health canada

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26
Q

Sugar Alcohols

A

Nutritive (0.2 to 4 kcal/g), no dental caries, low GI, Side effects in large quantities, absorbed slowly

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27
Q

What is the negative effect of sweeteners

A

Reduces sensitivity to sweetness causing excess caloric intake in the future

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28
Q

Soluble Fiber

A

Lowers cholesterol by binding bile, slows glucose absorption, slow transit of food through upper GI tract

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29
Q

What are the health benefits of soluble fiber

A

lower risk of heart disease, lower risk of diabetes and lower risk of colon cancer

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30
Q

Insoluble Fiber

A

Increases fecal weight and speed fecal passage through colon, provides feelings of fullness

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31
Q

Health benefits of insoluble fiber

A

May help with weight management

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32
Q

Harmful effects of fiber

A

Limit ability to meet caloric intake needs, sudden introduction can cause abdominal discomfort, gas and diarrhea

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33
Q

DRI for Carbohydrates

A

RDA 130g, AMDR 45-65%

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34
Q

Daily fiber intake

A

25g/2000kcal, DRI 14g per 1000kcal per day

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35
Q

Fiber intake limits

A

WHO advises less than 40g

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36
Q

Def: Obesity

A

One who receives negative health affects due to high body weight and body fat

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37
Q

Obesity as a health indicator

A

Inaccurate on individual level, good indicator on a average health level

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38
Q

What are Lipids composed of

A

Carbons, hydrogen and oxygen

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39
Q

What are the uses of fat

A

Insulation, energy (low intensity), protection, taste for food

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40
Q

What is the structure of fats?

A

Even number of Carbons (usually 18) with H attached, carboxylic acid and methyl group

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41
Q

What is considered to be a long, medium and short chain

A

Long: 12-24
Medium: 6-10
Short: less than 6

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42
Q

Def: Saturated Fatty acids

A

No double bonds, as many H as possible, solid at room temperature, more stable, longer chain lengths

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43
Q

Def: Unsaturated Fatty Acids

A

Lose of at least 2 H atoms, liquid at room temperature, unstable, shorter chains

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44
Q

Def: Monounsaturated Fatty Acids

A

1 double bond

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45
Q

Def: Polyunsaturated fatty acid

A

2+ double bonds

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46
Q

Stearic Acid

A

18 Carbon Atoms, 0 Double bonds, saturated, Most animal fats

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47
Q

Oleic Acid

A

18 Carbon Atoms, 1 Double bonds, Monounsaturated, Olive, canola oils

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48
Q

Linoleic acid

A

18 C, 2 Double bonds, polyunsaturated, sunflower, safflower, corn and soybean oils

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49
Q

Linolenic Acid

A

18 C, 3 double bonds, polyunsaturated, soybean, flaxseed, and canola oils, walnuts

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50
Q

Omega Number

A

Location of double bonds nearest to the methyl end of the carbon chain

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51
Q

Triglycerides

A

Glycerol backbone + 3 fatty acids

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52
Q

What type of reaction is used to form triglyerides

A

condensation reaction where H2O is released

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53
Q

Hydrogenation

A

H atoms added to unsaturated fatty acids, makes liquid fat more solid at room temperature, increases shelf life

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54
Q

Trans Fatty Acids

A

Derived from the process of hydrogenation, occurs naturally in some animal-based products, behave like saturated fats in the body

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55
Q

Phospholipids

A

Glycerol + 2 FA + phosphate group, soluble in fat and water, emulsifier

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56
Q

Sterols

A

Multiple-ring structure, eg. Cholesterol and plant sterols

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57
Q

Lipid Digestion in the Mouth

A

Lingual Lipase secreted

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58
Q

Lipid Digestion in the Stomach

A

Lingual Lipase activated by acid and begins to digestion hydrolyze one bond of triglycerides to produce diglycerides and fatty acids, the stomach churning action mixes fat with water and acid

59
Q

Lipid Digestion in the Small intestine

A

CCK signals release of bile which emulsified fat, pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes emulsified into monoglycerides, glycerol and fatty acids

60
Q

Lipid Digestion in the Large intestine

A

some fat and cholesterol trapped in fiber, exit in feces

61
Q

Emulsification by bile

A
  1. Fat and water separate with enzymes in the water,
  2. Bile has an affinity for both fat and water allowing it to bring the fat into the water as a micelle
  3. Bile converts large fat globules into small droplets
  4. exposes fats to enzymes
62
Q

How are Triglycerides digested

A

Pancreatic and intestinal lipases hydrolyze the fatty acids

63
Q

How are phospholipids digested

A

Pancreatic and intestinal lipases hydrolyze the fatty acid chains

64
Q

How are sterols digested

A

Sterols are absorbed in their whole form

65
Q

How is Glycerol absorbed

A

Diffuses directly into the blood stream

66
Q

How are small lipids absorbed

A

Diffuses directly into the blood stream

67
Q

Which forms of lipids can diffuse directly into the blood stream

A

Glycerol and small lipids

68
Q

How are monoglycerides and fatty acids absorbed?

A
  1. combine with bile to form micelle
  2. Diffuse across membrane
  3. Reform triglycerides
  4. Combined with other lipids (cholesterol, phospholipids) and protein to form chylomicrons
  5. Chylomicrons enter the lymph
69
Q

What types of fats are absorbed via combination with bile to form micelles

A

Monoglycerides and fatty acids

70
Q

Def: Chylomicrons

A

Clusters of lipids and proteins that act as transport vehicles for fat called lipoproteins

71
Q

Types of lipoproteins

A

Chylomicrons - large and least dense
VLDL (very-low-density lipoprotein) - bad
LDL (Low density lipoprotein)
HDL (high density lipoprotein) - good

72
Q

Structure of a typical lipoprotein

A

The interior is composed of triglycerides and cholesterol and is surrounded by phospholipids
Phospholipids are organized similar to membranes (heads on the outside, tails on the inside)

73
Q

Composition percentage of Chylomicron

A

Primarily triglycerides very little protein

74
Q

Composition percentage of VLDL

A

Half triglycerides, relatively equal composition of other nutrients

75
Q

Composition percentage of LDL

A

lots of cholesterol relatively equal composition of other nutrients

76
Q

Composition percentage of HDL

A

Lots of proteins, least amount of triglycerides, equal parts of cholesterol and phospholipids

77
Q

Similarities in VLDL and HDL

A

Same percentage composition of cholesterol and phospholipids in both

78
Q

Function of Chylomicrons

A

Transport diet derived lipids to cells

79
Q

Function of VLDL

A

Produced in liver, Deliver lipids to body (from GI tract and chylomicron remnants)

80
Q

Functions of LDL

A

VLDL that has many triglycerides removed, High in cholesterol (delivers it to tissues)

81
Q

Functions of HDL

A

Produced by liver to remove cholesterol from body tissues and back to liver for recycling, also has an anti-inflammatory property

82
Q

Lipoprotein lipase

A

Enzyme that is activated in response to insulin, hydrolyzes triglycerides to glycerol and fatty acids, allowing TG to move into the cells on the endothelial cell lining of the capillaries around muscle adipose and heart tissue

83
Q

Factors that lower LDL and/or raise HDL

A 
Weight control (body composition)
Monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fat in diet (instead of saturated)
Soluble dietary fibers
Phytochemicals (e.g. plant sterols)
Moderate alcohol consumption
Physical activity (mainly raise HDL)
84
Q

Blood Cholesterol effects of heart attacks

A

Accumulates in arteries, restricts blood flow, leads to heart attack or stroke

85
Q

Process of Atherosclerosis

A
  1. Damage to artery wall
  2. Deposition f oxidized LDL
  3. Inflammatory response
  4. Recruitment of monocytes to damages area with inflammatory response turning them into macrophages to ingest the LDL cholesterol
  5. Macrophages accumulate in arterial intima (take up lots of cholesterol turning them into foam cells
  6. Collagen deposition around foam cells ( thickening and hardening of the intimal medial layer of artery)
  7. Migration of smooth muscle cells forming a fiberous cap
  8. Artery becomes hard and non-elastic
86
Q

Effects of Saturated Fat, trans fats and cholesterol consumption

A

Increased risk of heart disease

87
Q

Effects of mono- and poly- unsaturated fat consumption

A

decreased risk of heart disease, larger chylomicrons/ VLDL preventing them from crossing the endothelium layer

88
Q

Fat DRI

A

20-35%

89
Q

Daily values for various fats

A

65g or 30% of total energy intake fats
20g or 10% of total energy intake for saturated and trans fats - low as possible
300mg cholesterol

90
Q

Roles of Adipose tissue

A

Stores fat - creating unlimited energy store
Secrets hormones: adipokines - regulates energy balance and influence body functions
Insulation
shock absorption
structural material for membranes

91
Q

Essential Fatty Acids

A

Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
Eicosanoids

92
Q

Linoleic Acid

A

Omega-6 - component of membrance phospholipids, required for nerves, makes arachidonic acid

93
Q

Linolenic Acid

A

Omega-3 - Component of membrane phospholipids make EPA and DHA - needed in eyes and brain

94
Q

Eicosanoids

A

Made from n-6 and n-3 long-chain fats, inflammatory mediating compounds (n-6 inflammatory and n-3 anti-inflammatory

95
Q

Olive Oil

A

Low total and LDL cholesterol, low LDL oxidation, Lower blood clotting factors, Phytochemicals that acts as antioxidants, Lower BP, Lower inflammation

96
Q

Nuts

A

Energy dense, mono- and polyunsaturated fats, Fiber, protein, and other compounds, phytochemicals that act as antioxidants, plant sterols

97
Q

Fish

A

EPA and DHA -long chain fats

Reduce blood TG, Lower blood pressure, preventing blood clots, defending against inflammation, precursors for eiosanoid

98
Q

Mediterranean Diet

A

High fat, low saturated fat, very low in trans fat

99
Q

Effects correlations of a Mediterranean diet

A

lower risk of heart disease, lower risk of cancer

100
Q

Functions of proteins

A

Building blocks of the body
Enzymes
Hormones

101
Q

Where can you get protein from

A

Meat, eggs, milk, legumes, grains, vegetables

102
Q

Amino acid structure

A

Contain C,H,O, & N, central carbon with an acid group (COOH) and an amino group (NH2), a unique side chain and hydrogen saturation

103
Q

How many essential and none essential amino acids are there

A

9 essential, 11 non-essential

104
Q

What is the bond between amino acids called when forming a chain

A

peptide bond

105
Q

Primary Structure

A

Sequence of amino acids

106
Q

Secondary Structure

A

Determined by week electrical attractions within chain, resulting in either a twisting or folding of protein

107
Q

Tertiary Structure

A

Complex structures as a result of side chain properties

108
Q

Quaternary sturcture

A

Interactions between polypeptide chains

109
Q

Protein Denaturation

A

A proteins stability is disturbed causing it to uncoil and lose their shape along with a loss of functional ability - could be caused by heat or acid

110
Q

Digestion of protien in the mouth

A

Mechanical digestion through mastication

111
Q

Digestion of protein in the stomach

A

Hydrochloric acid denatures protiens and activates pepsinogen to pepsin where cleaves proteins into smaller polypeptides

112
Q

Digestion of protein in the small intestine

A

Pancreatic and intestinal proteases turn polypeptides into tripeptides, dipeptides and amino acids, surface enzymes such as intestinal tripeptidases and dipeptidases further break down into amino acids

113
Q

Protien Absorption

A

Amino acids transported into intestinal cells -Specific carriers for amino acids and small peptides
Once in the enterocyte they are used for energy and synthesis of other proteins
Unused AA are sent to the liver via the bloodstream

114
Q

Transcription

A

DNA acts as a template for mRNA which copies the information

115
Q

Translation

A

mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches amino acids in sequence based on mRNA until completed chain is released as a protein

116
Q

Roles of proteins

A

Building materials, Hormones, enzymes, transporters, fluid balance, acid-base balance, antibodies, provide glucose and energy, other

117
Q

Role of protein as a building material

A

For growth, maintenance or repair, muscle, bone, skin

118
Q

Role of protein as a hormone

A

Messenger molecules, released in response to stimuli, travel in bloodstream to tissues, elicit appropriate responses

119
Q

Role of protein as an enzyme

A

Proteins that facilitate or help a reaction to completion - Build substances, break them down transform one substance into another

120
Q

Role of protein as transporters

A

Transport solutes across cell membranes

121
Q

Def: Gluconeogeneses

A

Conversion of proteins to glucose

122
Q

Def: Transamination

A

Conversion of an amino acid to anther amino acid

123
Q

What can amino acids be used to make?

A

Other compounds - neurotransmitters

Energy and glucose

124
Q

Deamination

A

Removal of the N-containing amino groups, resulting in Ammonia (NH3) and keto acid

125
Q

What happens when ammonia is removed form an amino acid

A

Ammonia is combined with CO2 in the liver to make urea since ammonia is toxic, urea is released into the blood and passes through the kidneys where it is filtered out

126
Q

Protein Turnover

A

Continual making and breaking of proteins, turnover rate is about 1-2%/day

127
Q

Amino Acid pool

A

Floating amino acids that are cycled through protein turnover or used for energy

128
Q

Nitrogen balance

A

N intake - N output = N Balance

129
Q

Positive Nitrogen Balance

A

Used to gain muscle of build tissues, when more N is going in than coming out, pregnant mom, growing child

130
Q

Nitrogen Equilibrium

A

Equal N in and out, regular nongrowing individual

131
Q

Negative Nitrogen balance

A

More N out than in, lose muscle mass, surgical patient or astronaut

132
Q

Factors effecting nitrogen balance

A

Protein consumption, nitrogen in urine, feces, hair, nails, sweat, skin debris, breath

133
Q

How is nitrogen balance often miscalculated

A

overestimated N intake, underestimated N output, overall overestimated N balance

134
Q

Protein turnover cycle

A
  1. Eating acts as an anabolic stimulus
  2. Muscle protein synthesis rate increases and MP breakdown decrease
  3. without stimulus MSP will eventually drop and MPB will eventually rise
135
Q

How does age effect protein turnover cycle

A

Elderly exhibit the same MPB as adults but lower MPS

136
Q

How does resistance training effect protein turnover cycle

A

Increases MPS overall for the rest of the day

137
Q

Do athletes require more protein for energy

A

Amino acid oxidation contributes to less than 5% of energy production during exercise in trained athletes, protein consumption during exercise does not improve performance

138
Q

Do athletes who do resistance training need additional protein

A

At 0.8g/kg/d in negative protein balance, at 1.4g/kg/d in positive protein balance, at 2.4g/kg/d in very positive protein balance, there is seen to be a significant improvement in strength gains in trained athletes with higher protein intake and overall athletes

139
Q

Optimal Protein intake for resistance training

A

at least 1.6g/kg/d with a confidence interval of 1.1 - 2.2

140
Q

Protein RDA for endurance athletes

A

1.2-1.4g/kg/d

141
Q

Protein RDA for team sports

A

1.2-1.7g/kg/d

142
Q

Protein RDA for power

A

1.5-1.7g/kg/d

143
Q

Protein RDA for strength

A

1.6-1.7g/kg/d

144
Q

Protein for Energy restriction

A

2.0g/kg/d (lose weight while building muscle mass)

Human Nutrition (3 decks)

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