Midterm Flashcards
Branch of political science that interacts between state actors and non-state actors internationally. This also conveys as interactions of the states and others
International relations
What are the specialization of the international relation?
wanted to expand his influence and was not afraid to go toe-to-toe with the Egyptians.
Muwatalli II
Whoever controlled the lands of Syria and Canaan controlled trade between Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Egypt
Access to trade routes
Both Egypt and the Hittites wanted to keep their enemies away from their core territories.
Buffer zone
Cities in the Levant (like Kadesh) were constantly switching sides depending on which empire looked stronger at the time.
Influence over vassal states
being the ambitious pharaoh he was, decided to take matters into his own hands.
Ramesses II
What Did This Mean for International Relations?
This treaty was not just a peace deal, it was one of the earliest examples of diplomacy, showing that war was not the only way to resolve conflicts between great powers. It set a precedent for future treaties and alliances, influencing how later empires handled international politics.
So, that is how the whole thing played out from border struggles to full-blown war, and finally, to one of the most important peace agreements in history.
Both Egypt and the Hittites agreed to stop attacking each other.either side broke the agreement, the gods of both nations would punish them.
Mutual non-aggression
The treaty confirmed the borders between the two empires. Egypt recognized Hittite control over Kadesh and parts of Syria, effectively ending Ramesses II’s ambitions of taking over the region.
Territorial Recognition
If either empire was attacked by a third party, the other was obligated to provide military assistance.
This turned Egypt and the Hittites into allies instead of rivals a major shift in ancient international politics.
Mutual Defense Pact
Both sides agreed to return political refugees who fled from one empire to the other.This was crucial because both Egypt and the Hittites had vassal states that often-switched loyalties.
Extradition Clause (One of the first of its kind)
To seal the deal, Ramesses II married a Hittite princess, later known as Maathorneferure. This was a common practice to strengthen diplomatic ties between rival powers.
Royal Marriage Alliance
This was a war between one side representing democracy and naval power, the other was all about military discipline and land-based dominance.
Peloponnesian War 431 BCE
A naval superpower with a strong economy.
Led the Delian League, an alliance originally formed to fight Persia but later became more of an Athenian empire. This is also a democracy
Athens “ the Delian league”
A land-based military state, ruled by an oligarchy.
o Led the Peloponnesian League, a rival alliance dominated by Sparta.
SPARTAN “ THE PELOPONNESIAN LEAGE”
Sparta sent reinforcements, Athens lost thousands of troops and ships, and the entire expedition turned into one of the worst military failures in history.
DISASTER
Instead of outright annexing every place they conquered, they set up “client states” independent kingdoms under Roman influence. These states handled their own affairs but had to support Rome militarily.
Client states
Rome would often sign foedera (treaties) with neighboring states, either as equals (foedus aequum) or as subordinates (foedus iniquum).
Foedus (Treaties & Alliances)
Rome was strategic. Instead of crushing all enemies at once, they played their rivals against each other. For example, they sided with some Gallic tribes against others or used Germanic tribes as buffers against greater threats
Divide and Rule
Gave Roman citizenship to allied Italian states, making them part of the Roman system instead of rebelling.
Lex Julia (90 BCE)
Made every free person in the empire a Roman citizen, strengthening Roman identity and loyalty.
This was an early version of soft power, instead of constantly fighting, they made people want to be part of Rome
Edict of Caracalla (212 CE)
is also where we get Jus Gentium (Law of Nations), one of the first attempts at a universal legal system that applied to everyone, not just Romans.
ROME
is a legal doctrine borrowed from Roman law and its Latin meaning is “agreements must be kept”
Pacta sung servanda
What were the most important contribution of Roman Empire in international relations?
The Romans gave to international law, mainly, is Jus Gentium itself, but for specific moments or legal principle that shaped modern international law, then Jus Postliminii (Right of Return) and Jus Belli (Law of War)
In Rome the “Law of Nations.” it was the first attempt at creating a legal system that applied to people of different nationalities. This is a universal law principles
Jus Gentium
was to pay respect to individuals being in the state of far from home. In English this is the right of return. Restoration of right after war
Jus postliminii
In English this is the law of war, an early rules of war or Rules of war
Jus belli
The Peace of Westphalia (1648): The Birth of Modern IR
Fast forward to the 17th century, and Europe was still a mess. The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)—a brutal conflict mainly fought in the Holy Roman Empire (modern Germany)—had killed millions.
It started as a Catholic vs. Protestant war, but by the end, it was more about power politics than religion. France, Sweden, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and other states were all involved. The war devastated Europe, so they needed a solution.
A series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years’ War and reshaped European politics forever.
Peace o Westphalia
What is Westphalian Sovereignty?
Westphalian Sovereignty is the idea that each state has absolute control over its own territory and affairs, free from external interference.
This concept comes from the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which ended the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) one of the most brutal conflicts in European history.
Before this treaty, kings, empires, the Pope, and the Holy Roman Emperor constantly interfered in other countries’ affairs. The Treaty of Westphalia put a stop to that and introduced three major principles that still define international relations today
Kings and rulers could govern without interference from external powers, including the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor.
Political Independence
No state could meddle in another state’s internal affairs—whether about religion, governance, or political decisions.
Non-Intervention
Believed he was the supreme ruler of Europe.
The Holy Roman Emperor
Claimed authority over all Christian nations. This led by the pope
The Catholic Church
is about physically settling in a foreign land and ruling over it
Colonialism
is broader, it is about domination, whether through military force, economic control, or political influence.
Imperialism
The Age of Exploration: The “Discovery” and Conquest
Back in the 15th and 16th centuries, European nations Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, and the Netherlands started sailing across the world, “discovering” lands that had already been inhabited for thousands of years. Their goal is to look for Gold, spices, land, and power. The world was essentially a giant game of Risk, and these countries wanted a piece of everything.
Spain and Portugal were the first major players. They divided the world in 1494 under the Treaty of Tordesillas, two countries dividing up entire continents like it was a chessboard.
Fast forward to the 17th–19th centuries, and this whole process got even bigger. The British, French, Dutch, and later the Germans and Belgians jumped into the mix. These were not just one-time conquests—this was a systematic takeover of the world.
They needed raw materials (gold, silver, cotton, sugar, rubber), and they needed markets to sell their goods. Industrialization made this even more urgent
Economic gain
More land meant more prestige. If you controlled a big chunk of the world, you were seen as a global superpower.
Political Power
Europeans believed they were bringing “progress” to “uncivilized” lands. This was wrapped up in racist ideologies like the White Man’s Burden, which claimed that it was the duty of Europeans to “educate” and “civilize” the people they were colonizing. In reality, this just justified exploitation
The “Civilizing” Mission
Many former colonies still rely on their old rulers for trade, investments, and aid.
Economic dependency
English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese are still dominant languages in many places because of colonial rule.
Cultural influence
The riches taken from Africa, Asia, and Latin America built European economies, while many former colonies remained poor.
Wealth inequality
It was a diplomatic system created after the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) to prevent another Europe-wide war. The idea? Keep a balance of power among the major European nations so no single country could dominate the continent.
Concert of europe
Napoleon had wreaked havoc across Europe, conquering lands, overthrowing monarchies, and destabilizing the continent. After he was defeated at Waterloo (1815)
Congress of Vienna
No single country should become powerful enough to dominate Europe (
Balance of power
Instead of resorting to war, the great powers would meet in conferences to resolve disputes.
Regular diplomacy and meetings
The rulers of Europe were terrified of liberal revolutions overthrowing monarchies
Intervention in revolution
Monarchs that Napoleon overthrew were put back on their thrones (because the leaders of Europe believed monarchies = stability)
Legitimacy and restoration of monarchies
The Birth of International Relations as an Academic Discipline in the 20th Century
The study of International Relations (IR) as a formal academic discipline emerged in response to the geopolitical upheavals of the early 20th century, particularly the two World Wars. While political thought on state behavior, war, and diplomacy dates to classical philosophers such as Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes, it was not until the aftermath of World War I (1914–1918) that IR became a distinct field of study, structured within universities and research institutions.
The Impact of World War I: The Rise of Idealism
The devastation of World War I led scholars and policymakers to recognize the urgent need to understand the causes of international conflict and to develop mechanisms to prevent future wars. This realization gave rise to idealism, an early school of thought in IR that emphasized diplomacy, international cooperation, and the role of institutions in maintaining peace.
In 1919, the first-ever academic department dedicated to International Relations was established at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth. This milestone marked the beginning of IR as a distinct academic field, aiming to develop theories and practical solutions to maintain global stability. The establishment of the League of Nations in 1920, largely influenced by the idealistic vision of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, reflected this academic shift toward institutional approaches to conflict resolution.
However, idealism’s limitations became evident in the interwar period, as the League of Nations failed to prevent aggression by Axis powers, culminating in World War II. This failure led to a reevaluation of international politics, bringing about a paradigm shift in the discipline.
World War II and the Dominance of Realism
The outbreak of World War II (1939–1945) reinforced the argument that power dynamics, rather than institutional cooperation, drive international relations. The failure of appeasement policies, the rise of expansionist states, and the inability of diplomacy alone to prevent global war led to the dominance of realism, an approach that views international politics as a struggle for power among self-interested states.
Realism was solidified by scholars such as Hans Morgenthau, whose book Politics Among Nations (1948) became a foundational text in IR. Morgenthau argued that states act based on national interest and the pursuit of power, rather than moral principles or institutional frameworks. This perspective shaped Cold War diplomacy and the foreign policies of major powers, particularly the United States and the Soviet Union, which engaged in strategic rivalries without direct military confrontation.
The Cold War and the Expansion of International Relations
During the Cold War (1947–1991), IR expanded beyond the study of war and diplomacy to include nuclear strategy, economic interdependence, ideological conflicts, and proxy wars. The bipolar competition between the United States and the Soviet Union demonstrated the complexities of international politics, leading to the development of multiple theoretical approaches:
• Realism continued to dominate, emphasizing power politics and military strategy.
• Liberalism, in contrast, focused on international institutions (e.g., the United Nations, NATO, and the Bretton Woods system) as mechanisms for stability and cooperation.
• Constructivism, emerging later, argued that international relations are shaped not just by material power but also by ideas, identities, and norms.
The Contemporary Role of IR in Global Affairs
By the late 20th and early 21st century, IR had evolved into a comprehensive academic discipline that examines not only war and diplomacy but also global trade, human rights, environmental issues, terrorism, and digital governance.
Modern international relations continue to grapple with questions of sovereignty, intervention, globalization, and transnational challenges. While the foundational principles of realism and liberalism still shape global politics, the interconnected nature of today’s world has introduced new variables that challenge traditional state-centric perspectives.
refers to the structure and interactions of states, organizations, and other global actors within a world order. It consists of sovereign nations, international institutions, non-state actors (such as multinational corporations and terrorist groups), and the relationships between them.
International system
Environmental issues have become a major concern in international relations. Countries negotiate through agreements like the Paris Climate Accord, and climate change is now considered a global security threat, forcing cooperation even among rival states
Climate Diplomacy
The Unipolar Moment: U.S. Dominance in the 1990s
With the Soviet Union gone, the United States became the uncontested global leader. Militarily, economically, and politically, it held a position of unprecedented dominance, influencing international institutions, shaping global trade policies, and engaging in military interventions with little opposition. This period was often referred to as the “unipolar moment,” a term coined by political scientist Charles Krauthammer.
During the 1990s and early 2000s, the U.S. played a decisive role in global affairs:
• It led humanitarian interventions in the Balkans (Bosnia in 1995, Kosovo in 1999) under the banner of NATO.
• It shaped global economic policies through the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and World Trade Organization (WTO).
• It promoted the expansion of liberal democracy as the dominant political system, believing that the “end of history,” as described by Francis Fukuyama, had arrived.
Borders became sacred. No more random claims over another state’s land. If a country controls a territory, it is theirs and theirs alone.
Territorial Integrity
