Midterm Flashcards
(117 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of Hemorrhage?
A
Excessive or profuse bleeding resulting from ruptured blood vessels.
Can lead to hypovolemic shock, decreased oxygen delivery to tissues, and organ failure if not controlled.
2
Q
What is Passive Immunity?
A
Immunity acquired by the transfer of antibodies from another individual.
Examples include maternal antibodies passed to the fetus through the placenta and administration of antivenoms.
3
Q
What is the key hormone involved in immune response development?
A
Thymosin.
It is produced by the thymus gland and promotes the maturation of T-lymphocytes, essential for adaptive immunity.
4
Q
What is the consequence of cardiac muscle deprivation of blood supply?
A
Ischemia leading to myocardial infarction (heart attack).
Loss of oxygen and nutrients causes tissue damage and impaired cardiac function.
5
Q
What is the function of Aqueous Humor?
A
Maintaining intraocular pressure and nourishing the cornea and lens.
6
Q
What does the Cornea do?
A
Transparent front layer of the eye; refracts light.
7
Q
What is the role of the Lens in the eye?
A
Focuses light onto the retina; adjustable curvature for accommodation.
8
Q
What is the function of the Iris?
A
Regulates pupil size and light entry.
9
Q
What is the pathway of Pulmonary Circulation?
A
Right ventricle → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs (gas exchange) → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium.
10
Q
What is the purpose of Pulmonary Circulation?
A
Oxygenates blood and removes carbon dioxide.
11
Q
What activates Olfactory Cells?
A
Volatile chemical substances (odorants).
12
Q
What stimulates Taste Buds?
A
Dissolved substances in saliva, corresponding to taste modalities (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami).
13
Q
Where are the hearing receptors located?
A
Organ of Corti in the cochlea of the inner ear.
14
Q
What does the Electrocardiogram (ECG) P Wave represent?
A
Atrial depolarization.
15
Q
What does the QRS Complex represent in an ECG?
A
Ventricular depolarization.
16
Q
What does the T Wave represent in an ECG?
A
Ventricular repolarization.
17
Q
What is Pernicious Anemia?
A
Vitamin B12 deficiency leading to impaired red blood cell production.
18
Q
What characterizes Aplastic Anemia?
A
Bone marrow failure to produce blood cells.
19
Q
What causes Sickle Cell Anemia?
A
A genetic disorder causing abnormally shaped red blood cells.
20
Q
What is Polycythemia?
A
Increased red blood cell count; can be a compensatory mechanism or a disorder.
21
Q
What is Tidal Volume (TV)?
A
Air volume inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing (~500 mL).
22
Q
What is Inspiratory Capacity (IC)?
A
Maximum air inhaled after a normal exhalation (TV + Inspiratory Reserve Volume).
23
Q
What is Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)?
A
Additional air exhaled after normal exhalation.
24
Q
What is Vital Capacity (VC)?
A
Total exchangeable air (TV + IRV + ERV).
25
What is the Primary Immune Response?
Initial immune response upon first exposure to an antigen.
## Footnote
Characteristics include slower onset; involves activation of naïve B and T cells; leads to immunological memory formation.
26
What are Maculae and their role in Static Equilibrium?
Essential Component: Otoliths (calcium carbonate crystals).
## Footnote
They detect head position relative to gravity; involved in balance.
27
What is the function of Interferons?
Proteins that interfere with viral replication; activate immune cells.
## Footnote
Produced by virus-infected cells.
28
What is Aldosterone?
Mineralocorticoid hormone that regulates sodium and potassium balance; influences blood pressure.
29
Why is the Left Ventricular Wall thicker than the Right?
Pumps blood into the systemic circulation, requiring higher pressure; thus, thicker musculature compared to the right ventricle.
30
Why is the Posterior Pituitary Gland not considered a true endocrine gland?
Does not synthesize hormones; stores and releases hormones (oxytocin and vasopressin) produced by the hypothalamus.
31
What is Cellular Affinity?
Receptor’s binding strength to a ligand or hormone.
32
What is the Stressor Reaction?
Physiological response to stressors; activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.
33
What is Up-Regulation?
Increase in the number of receptors on a cell surface.
34
What is the function of Arteries?
Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to tissues; have thick, muscular walls to withstand high pressure.
35
What do Arterioles do?
Regulate blood flow into capillary beds through vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
36
What occurs in Capillaries?
Exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products occurs between blood and tissues; walls are one cell thick to facilitate diffusion.
37
What is the function of Veins?
Return deoxygenated blood to the heart; have thinner walls and often contain valves to prevent backflow due to lower pressure.
38
What factors are required for target cell activation by hormone-receptor interaction?
* Hormone Concentration
* Receptor Abundance
* Affinity
39
What is the correct sequence of events in Phagocytosis?
1. Chemotaxis
2. Adherence
3. Ingestion
4. Digestion
5. Exocytosis
40
What is Immunocompetence?
The ability of immune cells (B and T lymphocytes) to recognize and respond specifically to antigens.
41
What are Complete Antigens?
Substances that can provoke an immune response on their own and have both immunogenicity and reactivity.
42
What factors increase Arteriolar Blood Pressure?
* Increased Cardiac Output
* Peripheral Resistance
* Blood Volume
* Blood Viscosity
43
Which organ regulates erythrocyte production?
The kidneys, by releasing erythropoietin.
44
What are the parts of the conduction system of the heart?
* Sinoatrial (SA) Node
* Atrioventricular (AV) Node
* Bundle of His (AV Bundle)
* Right and Left Bundle Branches
* Purkinje Fibers
45
What are the classes of Immunoglobulins?
* IgG
* IgM
* IgA
* IgD
* IgE
46
What cells can kill cancer and virus-infected cells before activation of adaptive immunity?
Natural Killer (NK) cells.
47
What is the correct sequence of blood clotting?
1. Vascular Spasm
2. Platelet Plug Formation
3. Coagulation
48
What are Baroreceptors sensitive to?
Changes in blood pressure; they detect stretch in arterial walls.
49
What are the functions of Epinephrine, Estrogen, Renin, and Angiotensinogen?
* Epinephrine: Increases heart rate, muscle strength, and blood pressure
* Estrogen: Regulates reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics
* Renin: Initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
* Angiotensinogen: Converted by renin into angiotensin I, leading to blood vessel constriction
50
What is the normal average pH range of blood?
7.35 to 7.45.
51
What are the blood types and their compatibility for donation and reception?
* Type A: A antigens, anti-B antibodies
* Type B: B antigens, anti-A antibodies
* Type AB: Universal recipients
* Type O: Universal donors
52
What is the velocity of blood flow in different blood vessels?
* Arteries: High velocity
* Capillaries: Lowest velocity
* Veins: Moderate velocity
53
What are the lymphoid organs?
* Thymus
* Tonsils
* Peyer’s Patches
* Appendix
54
What are the characteristics of antibodies?
* Specificity
* Diversity
* Neutralization
* Opsonization
* Complement Activation
55
Who are considered universal blood donors?
Individuals with Type O negative blood.
56
What are potential consequences of hypertension?
* Heart Disease
* Stroke
* Kidney Damage
* Vision Loss
* Aneurysms
57
What is the second heart sound in the cardiac cycle?
Known as 'S2,' occurs during isovolumetric relaxation phase.
58
What are the components of the inflammatory response?
* Vasodilation
* Increased Vascular Permeability
* Migration of Leukocytes
* Pain Sensation
59
How do protein or amino acid-based hormones exert their effects?
They bind to receptors on the cell surface, triggering a cascade of intracellular events mediated by second messengers.
60
What are Lymph Follicles?
Small, localized clusters of lymphoid tissue found in mucous membranes.
61
What is the function of Lymph Nodes?
Filter lymph fluid, trapping pathogens and foreign particles.
62
What are lymph follicles?
Localized clusters of lymphoid tissue found in mucous membranes, containing lymphocytes and functioning as sites for immune responses against pathogens.
63
What is the role of lymph nodes?
Filter lymph fluid, trapping pathogens, foreign particles, and cancer cells, while allowing lymphocytes to recognize and respond to antigens.
64
What are lymphatics?
Lymphatic vessels that transport lymph throughout the body, collect excess interstitial fluid, and maintain fluid balance.
65
What determines blood pressure?
Cardiac output, peripheral resistance, blood volume, blood viscosity, and elasticity of arteries.
66
Where does gas exchange primarily occur?
In the alveoli of the lungs.
67
What is the second messenger mechanism of hormone action?
Involves hormones binding to cell surface receptors, activating intracellular signaling molecules to elicit specific cellular responses.
68
What is renin?
An enzyme produced by the kidneys that regulates blood pressure and electrolyte balance.
69
What is secretin?
A hormone secreted by the small intestine that stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate-rich fluids.
70
What is leptin?
A hormone produced by adipose tissue that regulates energy balance by inhibiting hunger.
71
What is gastrin?
A hormone released by the stomach that stimulates the secretion of gastric acid.
72
What could happen if the absolute refractory period in cardiac muscle cells were shortened?
It could lead to tetanic contractions, preventing the rhythmic pumping action of the heart.
73
What is the primary source of blood flow resistance?
The diameter of arterioles.
74
What structures are classified as part of the lymphatic system?
* Spleen
* Thymus
* Tonsils
* Peyer’s Patches
75
How does lymph exit a lymph node?
Through efferent lymphatic vessels.
76
Where are taste buds located?
On the tongue, soft palate, upper esophagus, cheek, and epiglottis.
77
What is dark adaptation?
The process by which the eyes increase sensitivity in low-light conditions.
78
What are the critical functions of the lymphatic system?
* Fluid balance
* Fat absorption
79
What is tidal volume?
The amount of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal breath at rest, typically ranging from 500 to 600 milliliters.
80
Where do B lymphocytes develop immunocompetence?
In the bone marrow.
81
What supplies blood to myocardial capillaries?
The coronary arteries.
82
What causes normal heart sounds?
Closure of heart valves.
83
Define chemotaxis.
The movement of cells toward chemical signals.
84
What is diapedesis?
The process by which white blood cells move through blood vessel walls into surrounding tissues.
85
What is phagocytosis?
The engulfing and digestion of pathogens or debris by specialized cells.
86
Describe the mechanism of air movement in the lungs.
Air moves in during inhalation when the diaphragm contracts and the thoracic cavity expands, and air is pushed out during exhalation when the diaphragm relaxes.
87
What is lung compliance?
The ability of the lungs to stretch and expand.
88
What are the components of lymph?
* Water
* Plasma proteins
* Lymphocytes
* Cellular debris/pathogens
* Fats
89
What are megakaryocytes?
Large bone marrow cells that produce platelets.
90
What are polymorphonuclear cells?
A category of white blood cells including neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
91
What are hemocytoblasts?
Multipotent stem cells in the bone marrow that give rise to all blood cell types.
92
What are the functions of type I and II cells in the alveolar walls?
* Type I: Facilitate gas exchange
* Type II: Secrete surfactant
93
What do parathyroid glands regulate?
Blood calcium levels.
94
What does lymph transport rely on?
* Skeletal muscle contraction
* Respiratory movements
* Contraction of smooth muscle in lymphatic vessels
95
How do steroid hormones exert their action?
They diffuse through the cell membrane and bind to intracellular receptors.
96
What is the mechanism of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange in the lungs?
Diffusion across the alveolar and capillary membranes.
97
Where do the right lymphatic duct drain lymph from?
* Right upper limb
* Right side of the head
* Right thorax
98
What happens when the atrioventricular (AV) node is damaged?
It leads to heart block, disrupting electrical signals between the atria and ventricles.
99
What is the sensory epithelium called that responds to changes in head position relative to gravity?
Macula
## Footnote
The macula is located within both the utricle and saccule and contains hair cells that detect linear movements.
100
What structure within the cochlea houses the organ of Corti?
Cochlear Duct (Scala Media)
## Footnote
The organ of Corti is responsible for converting sound vibrations into neural signals.
101
What are the three structures that detect rotational movements of the head?
Semicircular Canals
## Footnote
The three canals are anterior, posterior, and lateral, oriented at roughly 90 degrees to each other.
102
What condition occurs when blood flow to a part of the heart muscle is blocked, leading to tissue death?
Myocardial Infarct (Heart Attack)
## Footnote
It results from a lack of oxygen due to blocked blood flow.
103
What term describes chest pain resulting from reduced blood flow to the heart muscle?
Angina Pectoris
## Footnote
It often indicates underlying coronary artery disease.
104
What is ischemia?
Insufficient blood flow to tissues
## Footnote
It causes a shortage of oxygen needed for cellular metabolism.
105
What is pericarditis?
Inflammation of the pericardium
## Footnote
The pericardium is the protective sac surrounding the heart.
106
In what order does light pass through the eye structures?
1. Cornea
2. Aqueous Humor
3. Pupil
4. Lens
5. Vitreous Humor
6. Retina
## Footnote
Each structure plays a role in refracting and focusing light.
107
What are the layers of blood vessel walls?
1. Tunica Intima
2. Tunica Media
3. Tunica Externa (Adventitia)
## Footnote
Tunica intima provides a smooth lining, tunica media regulates vessel diameter, and tunica externa offers structural support.
108
What are platelets also known as?
Thrombocytes
## Footnote
They play a crucial role in hemostasis by forming clots to prevent bleeding.
109
What is the primary function of arteries?
Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
## Footnote
The exception is the pulmonary arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
110
What is the foramen ovale?
An opening between the right and left atria in fetal circulation
## Footnote
It allows blood to bypass the non-functioning fetal lungs and typically closes after birth.
111
What ion is commonly used as a second messenger in amino acid-based hormone signaling?
Calcium ions (Ca²⁺)
## Footnote
They transmit signals from receptors to target molecules within cells.
112
What is the main function of rods in the eye?
Vision in low-light conditions (scotopic vision)
## Footnote
Rods are highly sensitive to light but do not detect color.
113
What is intrapulmonary pressure?
Pressure within the alveoli of the lungs
## Footnote
It equalizes with atmospheric pressure during periods of no airflow.
114
What does Dalton's Law state?
Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases equals the sum of the partial pressures of individual gases
## Footnote
This law describes the behavior of gases in mixtures.
115
What does Henry's Law describe?
Amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional to its partial pressure above the liquid
## Footnote
This law is often applied in understanding gas solubility.
116
What is Charles' Law?
Volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature, provided pressure is constant
## Footnote
This law explains the relationship between gas volume and temperature.
117
What does Boyle's Law state?
Pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume when temperature is constant
## Footnote
This law describes the behavior of gases under constant temperature.
