Midterm Flashcards
What are the perspectives of Lifespan developmental psychology?
1.Multidirectional – Development doesn’t go in a straight line. People grow in some ways and decline in others. For example, as you get older, you might get better at solving problems but slower at remembering names.
- Multicontextual – Many different situations affect development, like where you live, your family, or historical events. A child growing up in a wealthy city will have different experiences than one in a poor rural area.
- Multicultural – Culture shapes how people grow and behave. For example, in some cultures, children are taught to be independent, while in others, they are encouraged to rely on their families.
- Multidisciplinary – Many fields of study help us understand development, like psychology, biology, and sociology. A psychologist studies emotions, a biologist looks at brain changes, and a sociologist examines how society influences people.
What are the developmental domains?
Biosocial Domain: Studies the influence of social factors on biological development.
Cognitive Domain: Studies the thought processes, perceptual abilities, and language that influence our behavior and development.
Psychosocial Domain: Studies the interpersonal relationships that influence development.
What are the factors that affect development?
- Internal factors: things that are unique to the individual that can influence development.
- External factors: things that are outside of the individual that can influence development.
How do we learn?
Habituation & Dishabituation: These are forms of non-associative learning, where a person or animal changes their response to a stimulus without linking it to a reward or punishment.
• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): A form of associative learning, where a neutral stimulus becomes linked to a response (e.g., Little Albert learning to fear a white rat).
• Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Another form of associative learning, where behavior is shaped by rewards or punishments.
• Social Learning Theory (Bandura): A form of observational learning, where people learn by watching others (e.g., children imitating aggressive behavior in the Bobo doll experiment).
What is ecological approach and who was it discovered by?
Definition: development occurs as a result of interactions with the environment.
Urie Brofenbrenner
What are the six levels of ecological approach?
- Individual – The person’s unique characteristics, such as genetics, personality, and health. Example: A child’s temperament or cognitive abilities.
- Microsystem – The immediate environment where direct interactions happen, such as family, school, and friends. Example: A child’s relationship with their parents and teachers.
- Mesosystem – The connections between microsystems. Example: How a child’s home life affects their school performance.
- Exosystem – Indirect environments that impact development, even if the person isn’t directly involved. Example: A parent’s stressful job affecting family life.
- Macrosystem – The broader cultural and societal influences, such as traditions, laws, and economic conditions. Example: Growing up in a country that values individualism vs. collectivism.
- Chronosystem – The role of time and major life events in shaping development. Example: Experiencing a parents’ divorce or living through a global pandemic.
What is Freuds theory of psychosexual development?
Personality develops based on changes in the libido (sexual energy) and fixation on erogenous zones and is determined by the first 3 stages and is fixed by the age of 5.
What are the stages of psychosexual development?
- Oral Stage (0–1 year)
• Erogenous Zone: Mouth
• Key Activities: Sucking, biting, and swallowing
• Developmental Task: Weaning off breastfeeding or bottle-feeding
• Fixation Outcome: Overindulgence or frustration may lead to oral fixation, such as smoking, nail-biting, overeating, or excessive dependency in adulthood. - Anal Stage (1–3 years)
• Erogenous Zone: Anus
• Key Activities: Bowel and bladder control (toilet training)
• Developmental Task: Learning self-control and independence
• Fixation Outcome:
• Anal-retentive personality: Overly organized, stubborn, perfectionistic (if toilet training is too strict).
• Anal-expulsive personality: Messy, careless, rebellious (if toilet training is too lenient). - Phallic Stage (3–6 years)
• Erogenous Zone: Genitals
• Key Activities: Exploration of genital differences, attachment to the opposite-sex parent
• Developmental Task: Resolving the Oedipus complex (boys’ unconscious desire for their mother) and the Electra complex (girls’ unconscious desire for their father).
• Fixation Outcome: Unresolved conflicts may lead to excessive vanity, sexual anxiety, or problems with authority in adulthood. - Latency Stage (6–12 years)
• Erogenous Zone: Dormant sexual feelings
• Key Activities: Socialization, learning, and skill development
• Developmental Task: Developing friendships, school performance, and cultural values
• Fixation Outcome: Freud believed this stage was a period of relative calm, but lack of social development could result in difficulties with relationships later in life. - Genital Stage (12+ years, puberty onward)
• Erogenous Zone: Genitals (mature sexual interests)
• Key Activities: Developing romantic relationships, forming a stable identity
• Developmental Task: Establishing intimate relationships and contributing to society
• Fixation Outcome: If earlier conflicts were not resolved, individuals may struggle with intimacy, sexual dysfunction, or forming meaningful relationships.
What is psychosocial theory and who discovered it?
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development consists of eight stages, each defined by a key conflict that influences psychological growth. Each stage centers on a challenge that must be faced to develop a specific strength or virtue.
What are the stages of psychosocial development?
- Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0–1 year)
Infants learn whether they can trust their caregivers and the world. Successful resolution leads to trust and hope.- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1–3 years)
Children learn to assert their independence. Success builds confidence, while failure leads to self-doubt. - Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3–6 years)
Children start to take initiative and make decisions. Success leads to a sense of purpose, while failure leads to guilt. - Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6–12 years)
Children develop competence in various skills. Success fosters a sense of industry, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. - Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12–18 years)
Teenagers explore their identities. Successful resolution leads to a strong sense of self, while failure results in confusion about who they are. - Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18–40 years)
Young adults form intimate relationships. Success leads to love and connection, while failure results in isolation. - Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40–65 years)
Adults focus on contributing to society and future generations. Success leads to generativity, while failure results in stagnation. - Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years)
Older adults reflect on their lives. Success leads to a sense of integrity and wisdom, while failure leads to regret and despair.
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1–3 years)
What is Cognitive development and who discovered it?
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development focuses on how children’s thinking evolves in stages as they interact with the world around them. Piaget believed that children actively construct their understanding of the world through their experiences, and their cognitive abilities change as they grow.
What are the stages of cognitive development?
- Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
• Key Feature: Infants explore the world through their senses and motor actions.
• Cognitive Development: Development of object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when not seen).
• Example: A baby learns that a toy hidden under a blanket still exists, even though they can no longer see it. - Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
• Key Feature: Children begin to use symbols, like words and images, to represent objects and ideas.
• Cognitive Development: Egocentrism (difficulty in seeing things from other perspectives) and centration (focusing on one aspect of a situation, ignoring others).
• Example: A child may think that because they know something, everyone else must know it too (egocentrism). They might also focus on the height of a glass of water but ignore its width (centration). - Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)
• Key Feature: Children develop logical thinking and can perform operations on concrete objects.
• Cognitive Development: Mastery of conservation (understanding that quantity doesn’t change even if its appearance changes) and reversibility (understanding that objects can be changed and then returned to their original form).
• Example: A child understands that if you pour water from one glass into another, the amount of water stays the same, even though the shape of the glass has changed. - Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up)
• Key Feature: Adolescents begin to think abstractly and logically about hypothetical situations.
• Cognitive Development: Ability to think about abstract concepts, reason logically, and solve complex problems.
• Example: An adolescent can think about hypothetical scenarios, such as considering the potential outcomes of various actions in a complex situation.
What is zone of proximal development and who discovered it?
Refers to the range of tasks that a child can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable person, such as a teacher, parent, or peer, but cannot yet complete independently. The ZPD lies between what the child can do alone and what they cannot do, even with assistance. (Another word is scaffolding)
Discovered by: lev vygotsky
What is moral development and who discovered it?
Moral development refers to the process by which individuals learn to distinguish between right and wrong, develop values, and make ethical decisions. It is influenced by cognitive, emotional, and social factors, and it progresses as people grow older and gain experience.
Discovered by: Lawrence Kolhberg
What are the stages of moral development?
• Level 1: Preconventional Morality (typically seen in young children):
• Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: People make decisions based on avoiding punishment. For example, a child might not take a cookie because they fear getting in trouble.
• Stage 2: Self-Interest Orientation: People make decisions based on what benefits them personally. For example, a child might share their toy only if they expect to get something in return.
• Level 2: Conventional Morality (adolescents and many adults):
• Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity: Moral decisions are based on gaining approval from others and maintaining good relationships. For example, a teenager might follow rules to be seen as “good” by their parents.
• Stage 4: Authority and Social Order: People follow laws and rules to maintain order in society. For example, an adult might follow traffic laws because it is important for the safety of everyone.
• Level 3: Postconventional Morality (few adults reach this level):
• Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation: People understand that laws and rules are based on mutual agreement for the greater good, but sometimes laws can be changed for the welfare of all. For example, someone might protest an unjust law.
• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: Moral reasoning is based on abstract principles like justice, equality, and human rights. For example, someone might act against an unjust system, even if it’s illegal, because they believe it’s the morally right thing to do.
What are chromosomes made of?
Chromosomes are made up of genes, which are composed of DNA
How many chromosomes do human cells contain?
Human cells contain 23 matching pairs of chromosomes (46 total).
What is a genome?
A genome is the complete set of instructions to construct a living organism.
What are the two types of cell reproduction?
Mitosis and meiosis.
What is the primary function of mitosis?
Mitosis allows cells to replicate for growth and repair.
What is the primary function of meiosis?
Meiosis is the process by which sex cells (gametes) are created.
What is “crossing-over” in meiosis?
It is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes, increasing genetic diversity.
How many chromosomes do gametes contain?
23 single, unpaired chromosomes.
What determines the sex of a zygote?
The presence of an X or Y chromosome from the sperm.
