Midterm

Question 1

Key feature of infantile amnesia

Answer 1

It involves adults failing to recall autobiographical memories of their early life

Question 2

Mobile conjugate reinforcement paradigm

Answer 2

(Rovee-Collier, 1989) Babies 2 to 3 month old babies showed evidence of retention; learning was context specific; evidence of declarative memory in infants younger than 7 months

Question 3

Deferred imitation task

Answer 3

(Meltzoff, 1985) 14-month-old infants showed evidence of deferred imitation; improvement in deferred imitation as age increases; other studies (i.e. Collie & Hayne, 1999) showed evidence of deferred imitation in 6-month-olds

Question 4

Declarative memory in infants

Answer 4

Shows up almost immediately; only accessible to language; develops rapidly over the first two years of life

Question 5

Four principles of infant memory development

Answer 5

(Hayne, 2004) 1. Older infants typically encode or store information faster than younger ones 2. Older infants remember information for longer retention intervals than younger ones 3. Older infants make use of a greater variety of retrieval cues than do younger ones 4. Forgotten memories can be retrieved when a reminder is presented

Question 6

Schacter and Moscovitch’s cognitive neuroscience theory of infant memory development (1984)

Answer 6

Implicit memory is controlled by an early-developming memory system in the brain that might be present at birth; Declarative memory depends on a late-developing memory system in the brain that reaches maturity between 8 to 10 months of age

Question 7

Richmond and Nelson’s cognitive neuroscience theory of infant memory development (2007)

Answer 7

Studied the areas of the brain that are involved in implicit memory and in declarative memory and when they develop

Question 8

Why does declarative memory in children become better during the process of development?

Answer 8

(Siegler, 1998) 1. Capacity of short-term memory or working memory may increase over the years 2. Children develop more memory strategies as they develop, and they learn to use those strategies more effectively 3. Older children possess more knowledge than younger ones, and this makes it easer for them to learn and to remember new information 4. Metamemory develops over the course of childhood

Question 9

Developmental changes of working memory

Answer 9

Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, and Wearing (2004); Progressive improvements year by year in all three components of the working memory system; the structure of working memory was fairly constant across the years of childhood

Question 10

Metamemory

Answer 10

Knowledge about one’s own memory and an ability to regulate its functioning

Question 11

Verbatim trace

Answer 11

(Brainerd and Reyna, 2004); a memory trace that contains accurate and detailed information about to-be-remembered stimuli

Question 12

Gist memory trace

Answer 12

(Brainerd and Reyna, 2004); a memory trace that contains a considerable amount of semantic information about to-be-remembered stimuli

Question 13

When does increased age become associated with errors in memory?

Answer 13

(Brainerd and Reyna, 2004); 1. The learning task leads older children to produce more gist memory traces than younger ones 2. The memory test requires verbatim recall or recognition 3. Greater gist memory increases the likelihood of false recall or recognitions of information very similar in meaning to the to-be-recalled information

Question 14

When is using gist memory a disadvantage?

Answer 14

When the memory test requires verbatim recall or recognition

Question 15

Infantile Amnesia according to Howe and Courage (1997)

Answer 15

Infants can only form autobiographical memories, after they have developed a sense of self to whom events having personal significance can occur

Question 16

Infantile Amnesia according to Fivush and Nelson (2004)

Answer 16

Social cultural developmental theory; language and culture both play central roles in the early development of autobiographical memory

Question 17

Why do children produce systematically distorted reports of events when exposed to suggestive influences?

Answer 17

(Roebers & Schneider, 2005); Social compliance: young children might yield to social pressure and a lack of social support even when their own recollection is accurate; Cognitive incompetence: young children might come to believe their own distorted memory reports because of limitations in processing, attention, and language

Question 18

Anterograde amnesia

Answer 18

A problem in encoding, storing, or retrieving information that can be used in the future

Question 19

Retrograde amnesia

Answer 19

A problem accessing events that happened in the past

Question 20

Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA)

Answer 20

Patients have difficulty forming new memories. Often follows a severe concussive head injury and tends to improve with time

Question 21

Transient global amnesia (TGA)

Answer 21

Apparently normal individuals suddenly develop severe problems in forming and retrieving new memories. The cause is unknown and the condition tends to resolve relatively rapidly.

Question 22

Classic amnesia profile

Answer 22

Preserved intellect and language coupled with a dense impairment in the capacity for episodic learning, whether tested visually or verbally, and whether by recall or recognition

Question 23

Possible causes of amnesia

Answer 23

Bilateral damage to the temporal lobes and hippocampus, Korsakoff syndrome, prolonged anoxia, and encephalitis resulting from brain infection

Question 24

Korsakoff syndrome

Answer 24

Patients have difficulty learning new information, although events from the past are recalled. There is a tendency to invent material to fill memory blanks. Most common cause is alcoholism, especially when this has resulted in a deficiency of vitamin B1.

Question 25

Do amnesiacs show normal classical conditioning?

Answer 25

Yes

Question 26

Working memory in amnesiacs

Answer 26

Preserved

Question 27

Semantic memory in amnesiacs

Answer 27

Preserved; although the capacity to add new information to semantic memory is typically defective

Question 28

Implicit memory in amnesiacs

Answer 28

Preserved, as measured by studies of priming, procedural learning, or classical conditioning (Warrington and Weiskrantz, 1968; Corkin, 1968; Cohen & Squire, 1980)

Question 29

Rate of forgetting in amnesiacs

Answer 29

Unimpaired

Question 30

Source amnesia

Answer 30

Characteristic difficulty that amnesic patients experience in recollecting the source of a given memory

Question 31

Ribot’s law

Answer 31

Older memories are more durable than those acquired more recently

Question 32

Personal semantic memory

Answer 32

Factual knowledge about one’s own past

Question 33

Assumption of the standard model of retrograde amnesia

Answer 33

The hippocampus and surrounding regions play a crucial role in memory consolidation. These regions also act as an intermediary, detecting and storing novel information at a relatively rapid rate, then holding it while it is gradually transferred to more cortical areas.

Question 34

System consolidation

Answer 34

The process whereby information is consolidated within the brain by a process of transfer from one anatomically based system to another

Question 35

Multiple Trace Hypothesis

Answer 35

(Nadel and Moscovitch, 1997, 1998); Alternative theory of retrograde amnesia; argues that the hippocampus plays a role in both retrieval and encoding; assumes that the process of long-term consolidation sets up recorded traces of experience within the hippocampal complex, rather than the neocortex.

Question 36

Traumatic brain injury (TBI)

Answer 36

Caused by a blow or jolt to the head, or by a penetrating head injury. Normal brain function is disrupted. Severity ranges from “mild” to “severe”

Question 37

What happens when patients recover from the temporary condition of PTA?

Answer 37

Typically, first recover personal knowledge, place, and temporal orientation; persistent problems of episodic memory tend to remain

Question 38

Positivity bias

Answer 38

The tendency, increasing over the lifespan, to recall more pleasant memories than either neutral or unpleasant ones

Question 39

Mather and Carstensen (2005)

Answer 39

Argue that as we get older and life grows short, people focus more on maintaining a sense of well-being, and less on goals concerning knowledge and the future

Question 40

Emotion regulation

Answer 40

Goal-driven monitoring, evaluating, altering, and gating one’s emotional reactions and memories about emotional experiences

Question 41

Repression

Answer 41

In psychoanalytic theory, a psychological defense mechanism that banishes unwanted memories, ideas, and feelings into the unconscious in an effort to reduce conflict and psychic pain. Theoretically, it can be either conscious or non conscious.

Question 42

Intentional forgetting

Answer 42

Forgetting arising from processes initiated by a conscious goal to forget it

Question 43

Psychogenic amnesia

Answer 43

Profound and surprising episodes of forgetting the events of one’s life arising from psychological factors, rather than biological or dysfunction.

Question 44

Directed forgetting

Answer 44

The tendency fo an instruction to forget recently experienced items to induce memory impairment for those items

Question 45

Item-method directed forgetting findings

Answer 45

(Basden) Recall for to-be-forgetten words is often substantially impaired, relative to to-be-remembered items; reflects deficits in episodic encoding

Question 46

Explanation behind findings of item-method directed forgetting

Answer 46

Remember instruction: triggers elaborate semantic encoding; Forget instruction: gives permission to simply release the word from rehearsal

Question 47

List-method directed forgetting findings

Answer 47

(Basden) 1. When participants believe that they can forget the first list, they often do much better at recalling the second list on the final test, compared to the remember group, 2. “Forget” instructions impair people’s recall of items from the first list, compared to performance in the remember condition, reflecting a cost of a forget instruction; reflects a retrieval deficit

Question 48

Mechanisms underlying list-method directed forgetting

Answer 48

Retrieval inhibition hypothesis and context shift hypothesis

Question 49

Retrieval inhibition hypothesis

Answer 49

An instruction to forget the first list inhibits list-one items, impairing recall; inhibition merely limits retrieval by reducing activation of unwanted items

Question 50

Context shift hypothesis

Answer 50

Instructions to forget mentally separate the to-be-forgotten items from the second list; to-be-forgotten items should be recalled more poorly because the new context is a poor retrieval cue for them

Question 51

Motivated context shift

Answer 51

Occurs as an effort to limit awareness of a memory by avoiding contexts that may act as cues for the memory.

Question 52

Why does using a motivated context shift work?

Answer 52

1. By avoiding reminders, the person deprives a memory of retrievals that ordinarily strengthen and preserve it (Erdelyi, 2006); 2. By changing environmental context, the incidental context within which one operates should mismatch the one in which the event took place, hindering retrieval

Question 53

Cognitive control

Answer 53

The ability to flexibly control thoughts in accordance with our goals, including our ability to stop unwanted thoughts from rising to consciousness

Question 54

Think/no-think (TNT) paradigm

Answer 54

A procedure designed to study the ability to volitionally suppress retrieval of a memory when confronted with reminders.

Question 55

Total memory control effect

Answer 55

(Anderson and Levy, 2008); a person’s intention to control retrieval alters retention; occurs as a result of TNT

Question 56

Positive control effect

Answer 56

The enhanced memory for “think” items above baseline recall; caused by intentional recall; occurs as a result of TNT

Question 57

Negative control effect

Answer 57

The memory deficit for “no think” items below baseline recall; due to participants intentionally shutting down retrieval; occurs as a result of TNT

Question 58

Brain mechanisms underlying retrieval suppression

Answer 58

(Anderson et al, 2004); Reduced hippocampal activity, indicates that people can intentionally regulate hippocampal activation to disengage recollection

Question 59

Psychogenic fugue

Answer 59

A form of psychogenic amnesia typically lasting a few hours or days following severe trauma, in which afflicted individuals forget their entire life history including who they are

Question 60

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 60

(Pavlov, 1927; Rescorla, 2004); the term arising from the classical conditioning literature give to the reemergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay; similarly, forgotten declarative memories have been observed to recover over time

Question 61

Reminiscence

Answer 61

(Ballard); the remembering again of the forgotten, without learning or a gradual process of improvement in the capacity to revive past experiences

Question 62

Hypermnesia

Answer 62

(Erdelyi); The improvement in recall performance arising from the repeated testing sessions on the same material

Question 63

What factors affect hypermnesia?

Answer 63

Visualization, reconstruction; largest on free recall tests; increases with increasing number of recall tests

Question 64

Incidental forgetting

Answer 64

Memory failures occurring without the intention to forget

Question 65

Motivated forgetting

Answer 65

A broad term encompassing intentional forgetting as well as forgetting triggered by motivations, but lacking conscious intention

Question 66

Forgetting curve/retention function

Answer 66

The logarithmic decline in memory retention as a function of time elapsed, first described by Ebbinghaus

Question 67

Permastore

Answer 67

(Bahrick, 1984); used to describe stable language learning performance; appears that forgetting occurs only up to a certain point, but beyond that memory traces appear to be frozen

Question 68

What is overall retention determined by?

Answer 68

The level of initial learning

Question 69

Accessibility

Answer 69

The ease with which a stored memory can be retrieved at a given point in time

Question 70

Availability

Answer 70

The distinction indicating whether a trace is or is not stored in memory

Question 71

Jost’s law

Answer 71

If two memories are equally strong at a given time, then the oldest of the two will be more durable and forgotten less rapidly

Question 72

Consolidation

Answer 72

The time-dependent process by which a new trace is gradually woven into the fabric of memory and by which its components and their interconnections are cemented together

Question 73

Synaptic consolidation

Answer 73

The imprint of experience takes time to solidify because it requires structural changes in the synaptic connections between neurons

Question 74

Systemic consolidation

Answer 74

The hippocampus is initially required for memory storage and retrieval but its contribution diminishes over time until the cortex is capable of retrieving the memory on its own

Question 75

How can you keep personal memories resistant to forgetting?

Answer 75

Retrieve them periodically

Question 76

Interference

Answer 76

The phenomenon in which the retrieval of a memory can be disrupted by the presence of related traces in memory

Question 77

Trace decay

Answer 77

The gradual weakening of memories resulting from the mere passage of time

Question 78

Factors that encourage incidental forgetting

Answer 78

Passage of time, contextual fluctuation, interference

Question 79

Contextual fluctuation

Answer 79

The gradual drift in incidental context over time, such that distant memories deviate from the current context more so than newer memories, thereby diminishing the former’s potency as a retrieval cue for older memories

Question 80

Competition assumption

Answer 80

(Anderson, Bjork, and Bjork, 1994); The theoretical proposition that the memories associated to a shared retrieval cue automatically impede one another’s retrieval when the cue is presented

Question 81

Cue-overload principle

Answer 81

(Watkins, 1978); The observed tendency for recall success to decrease as the number of to-be-remembered items associated to a cue increases

Question 82

Retroactive interference

Answer 82

The tendency for more recently acquired information to impede retrieval of similar older memories

Question 83

Findings related to retroactive interference

Answer 83

(Barnes and Underwood, 1959); 1. Introducing a highly related second list impairs the ability to recall items from the first list compared to the control 2. Increased training on the second-list items continues to harm retention of first-list items further, as training progresses

Question 84

Proactive Interference

Answer 84

The tendency for older memories to interfere with the retrieval of more recent experiences and knowledge

Question 85

Findings related to proactive interference

Answer 85

(Underwood, 1957); 1. People are more likely to forget items from a list when a prior list has been studied 2. The amount of interference is greatest when the two lists share a common cue 3. Interference effects are most severe when recall is tested rather than recognition

Question 86

Part-set cuing impairment

Answer 86

(Mueller and Brown, 1977); The tendency for target recall to be impaired by the provision of retrieval cues drawn from the same set of items in memory

Question 87

Collaborative inhibition

Answer 87

(Weldon and Belinger, 1997); A phenomenon in which a group of individuals remembers significantly less material collaboratively than does the combined performance of each group member individually when recalling alone

Question 88

Retrieval-induced forgetting

Answer 88

(Anderson et al., 1994); The tendency for the retrieval of some target items from long-term memory to impair the later ability to recall other items related to those targets

Question 89

Retrieval practice paradigm

Answer 89

A procedure used to study retrieval-induced forgetting

Question 90

Findings associated with RIF

Answer 90

Retrieval practice enhances recall of practiced items but it impairs related items; Selectively reviewing facts impairs nonreviewed material, particularly related material

Question 91

Associative blocking

Answer 91

(Anderson, et al, 1994); A theoretical process hypothesized to explain interference effects during retrieval, according to which a cue fails to elicit a target trace because it repeatedly elicits a stronger competitor, leading people to abandon efforts to retrieve the target.

Question 92

Core assumption of the blocking hypothesis

Answer 92

The idea that memories compete for access to awareness when their shared cue is provided

Question 93

Strength-dependent competition

Answer 93

The degree of interference should increase as the cue grows more strongly associated to the competition

Question 94

How does blocking explain the cue-overload principle

Answer 94

The more memories associated to a cue, the more likely it should be to accidentally retrieve a wrong answer, setting the blocking process in motion.

Question 95

Unlearning hypothesis of retroactive interference

Answer 95

(Melton and Irwin, 1940); The association between a stimulus and a trace will be weakened whenever that trace is retrieved inappropriately; involves punishment of the inappropriate retrieval

Question 96

How does the unlearning hypothesis explain RIF and retroactive interference?

Answer 96

During retrieval practice, competing items intrude and are punished

Question 97

Inhibition hypothesis

Answer 97

(Levy and Anderson, 2002); The need to overcome interference during retrieval triggers inhibition; active retrieval on practiced items should be necessary to induce forgetting of competitors

Question 98

Properties of RIF

Answer 98

1. Cue independence 2. Retrieval specificity 3. Strength independence 4. Interference dependence

Question 99

Cue independence

Answer 99

The tendency for forgetting caused by inhibition to generalize to novel test cues on the independent probe test

Question 100

Retrieval specificity

Answer 100

Active retrieval from long-term memory is necessary to induce forgetting of related information

Question 101

Strength independence

Answer 101

The degree to which competitors are strengthened by retrieval practice is unrelated to the size of the RIF deficit. Thus, strengthening an item by presenting the intact pairing does not induce RIF, whereas engaging in an impossible retrieval attempt still results in forgetting of unpracticed competitors

Question 102

Interference dependence

Answer 102

Interference by competitors during retrieval of targets is necessary for RIF of those competitors to occur. Therefore, high-frequency competitors, which pose greater competition than low-frequency competitors are more likely to be inhibited than vice versa.

Question 103

Retrieval

Answer 103

The process of recovering a target memory based on one or more cues, subsequently bringing that target into awareness

Question 103

Inhibitory control view of forgetting

Answer 103

Much of the forgetting that we experience arises from the need to control the retrieval process in the face of competition. It is the process by which we combat interference that precipitates forgetting, not the mere presence of other traces in memory

Question 104

Retrieval cues

Answer 104

Snippets of information that allow you to access a memory

Question 105

Associations

Answer 105

Structural linkages between traces that vary in strength

Question 106

Content addressable

Answer 106

Any aspect of the content of a memory can serve as a reminder that could access the experience

Question 107

Activation level

Answer 107

The variable internal state of a memory trace that contributes to its accessibility at a given state.

Question 108

Spreading activation

Answer 108

“Energy” flowing through connections linking traces

Question 109

When does a trace’s activation level increase?

Answer 109

1. When something related to it is perceived in the world 2. When attention is focused directly on the trace

Question 110

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 110

The more similar the cues available at retrieval are to the conditions present at encoding, the more effective the cues will be

Question 111

Research on dual cuing found that . . .

Answer 111

Having two cues is often far more beneficial than you would expect than if you simply added the probability of retrieving the target from each cue separately

Question 112

Retrieval mode

Answer 112

The cognitive set, or frame of mind, that orients a person towards the act of retrieval, ensuring that stimuli are interpreted ad retrieval cues

Question 113

According to research on retrieval mode, for retrieval to be effective it is necessary . . .

Answer 113

To adopt a cognitive set that ensures that stimuli will be processed as probes of episodic memory

Question 114

Context cues

Answer 114

Retrieval causes that specify aspects of the conditions under which a desired target was encoded, including the location and time of the event

Question 115

Mood context

Answer 115

The emotional state that a person was in when the event took place

Question 116

Physiological context

Answer 116

The pharmacological/physical state that one has thought about the temporal vicinity of the event

Question 117

Cognitive context

Answer 117

A particular collection of concepts that one has thought about in the temporal vicinity of the event

Question 118

Direct or explicit memory tests

Answer 118

Tests that ask people to retrieve their past; require context as a cue

Question 119

Free recall

Answer 119

Relies on context the most heavily because people must retrieve an entire set of studied items without overt cues, freely; necessitates the use of strategies for generalizing the answers in some order

Question 120

Cued recall

Answer 120

Provides additional cues than free recall; focuses on particular items in memory; requires context as a cue, but context is supplemented with specific information that focuses search

Question 121

Indirect memory tests

Answer 121

Memory tests that measure the influence of experience

Question 122

Repetition priming

Answer 122

Enhanced processing of a stimulus arising from recent encounters with that stimulus, a form of implicit memory

Question 123

Context dependent memory

Answer 123

The finding that memory benefits when the spatio-temporal, mood, physiological, or cognitive context at retrieval matches that present at encoding.

Question 124

Smith and Vela (2001) conclusions on context dependent memory

Answer 124

1. People show sensitivity to environmental context when they need to pay some attention to the physical enveionment at encoding 2. Effects grow in size as the delay between encoding and retrieval increases 3. The mere mental reinstatement of context greatly reduces the effects

Question 125

When does state dependent memory show up?

Answer 125

When memory is tested by recall

Question 126

Mood congruent memory

Answer 126

Bias in recall of memories such that negative mood makes negative memories more readily available than positive and vice versa; does not affect the recall of neutral memories.

Question 127

Mood dependent memory

Answer 127

A form of context dependent effect whereby what is learned in a given mood, whether positive or negative, or neutral, is best recalled in that mood

Question 128

Reconstructive memory

Answer 128

An active and inferential process of retrieval whereby gaps in memory are filled in based on prior experience, logic, and goals

Question 129

Important points concerning reconstructive memory

Answer 129

(Baddeley); there is an automatic retrieval process whereby information pops up for no oblivious reason; when appropriate information does not spring to mind, we seem to take in fragments and use them like a detective might use a clue

Question 130

Recognition memory

Answer 130

A person’s ability to correctly decide whether they have encountered a stimulus previously in a particular context

Question 131

Signal detection theory

Answer 131

A model of recognition memory that proposes that memory traces have strength values that reflect their activation in memory, which dictate how familiar they seem; assumes that new items will have familiarity, although usually less than items that have been studied

Question 132

Why is signal detection theory important?

Answer 132

Provides mathematical tools for estimating a person’s ability to discriminate old from new items and their guessing strategies; provides a conceptualization of how recognition judgements take place

Question 133

Familiarity based recognition

Answer 133

A fast, automatic recognition process based on the perception of a memory’s strength. Independent of the contextual information characteristic of recollection

Question 134

Recollection

Answer 134

The slower, more attention demanding component of recognition memory in dual process models, which involves retrieval of contextual information about the memory

Question 135

Dual process theories if recognition

Answer 135

A class of recognition models that assumes that recognition memory judgements can be based on two independent forms of retrieval process: recollection and familiarity

Question 136

Remember/know procedure

Answer 136

A procedure used on recognition memory tests to separate the influences of familiarity and recollection on recognition performance

Question 137

Process dissociation procedure (PDP)

Answer 137

A technique for parceling out the contributions of recollection and familiarity within a recognition task

Question 138

Generalizations made by Yonelinas (2002) regarding retrieval processes

Answer 138

1. Estimates of whether someone can recollect a stimulus appear to be far more sensitive to disruption by distraction

Question 139

Source monitoring

Answer 139

The process of examining the contextual origins of a memory in order to determine whether it was encoded from a particular source

Question 140

Autobiographical memory

Answer 140

Memory across the lifespan for both specific events and self-related information

Question 141

Four functions of autobiographical memory (proposed by Williams, Conway, and Cohen, 2002)

Answer 141

1. Directive function 2. Social function 3. Self-representation 4. Cope with adversity

Question 142

Reminiscence bump

Answer 142

A tendency in participants over 40 to show a high rate of recollecting personal experiences from their late teens and 20s

Question 143

Life narrative

Answer 143

A coherent and integrated account of one’s life that is claimed to form the basis of autobiographical memory

Question 144

Autobiographical knowledge base

Answer 144

Facts about ourselves and our past that form the basis for autobiographical memory

Question 145

Components of autobiographical memory

Answer 145

1. Experienced self 2. Knowledge base 3. Working self

Question 146

Working self

Answer 146

A concept proposed by Conway to account for the way in which autobiographical knowledge is accumulated and used; a way to encode information about what is, what was, and what can be

Question 147

Autonoetic consciousness

Answer 147

A term proposed by Tulving for self awareness, allowing the remembered to reflect on the contents of episodic memory

Question 148

Flashbulb memory

Answer 148

Term applied to the detailed and apparently highly accurate memory of dramatic experience

Question 149

“Now print” mechanism

Answer 149

The process underlying flashbulb memory development whereby extreme emotion was assumed to lead to an almost photographic representation of the event and its physical context

Question 150

Why do flashbulb memories develop?

Answer 150

1. Highly dramatic incidents are highly distinctive, with little danger of being confused with other events 2. We tend to talk about such events and watch them repeatedly, rehearsing them 3. The events tend to be important events that potentially change some aspect of our lives and surroundings 4. The tend to give rise to emotions

Question 151

False memory syndrome

Answer 151

Term applied to cases, particularly of child abuse, in which the remember becomes convinced of an event that did not happen

Question 152

Reappearance hypothesis

Answer 152

The view that under certain circumstances, such as flashbulb memory and PTSD, memories can be created that later reappear in exactly the same way

Question 153

Why do involuntary memories occur?

Answer 153

1. More recent 2. More arousing 3. More likely to occur for positive events 4. Likely to show the reminiscence bump

Question 154

Main characteristics of fugue

Answer 154

1. Typically preceded by stress 2. Depressed mood is common 3. There is often a history of transient organically based amnesia 4. It is often difficult to discount the possibility of an ulterior motive

Question 155

Confabulation

Answer 155

Occurs when the autobiographical information is false but not intentionally misleading

Question 156

Delusions

Answer 156

False beliefs, often found in schizophrenic patients, that seem well founded to the patient but implausible to a neutral observer

Question 157

Hierarchical network model of semantic memory (Collins and Quillian, 1969)

Answer 157

Assumes that semantic memory is organized into a series of hierarchical networks; replaced by spreading activation model

Question 158

Spreading activation model (Collins and Loftus, 1975)

Answer 158

Assumes semantic memory is organized on the basis of semantic relatedness or semantic distance

Question 159

Sensory functional theory of semantic memory

Answer 159

1. Living things are distinguished from each other mainly on the basis of their visual or perceptual properties 2. No living things are distinguished from each other mainly on the basis of their functional properties 3. There are three times as many visual units within the semantic system as there are functional units

Question 160

Cree and McRae’s multiple property approach to semantic memory

Answer 160

The brain is organized so that any given type of property is stored in a particular region of the brain

Question 161

Script

Answer 161

A type of scheme relating to the typical sequences of events in various common situations

Question 162

Frame

Answer 162

A type of scheme in which information about objects and their properties is stored

Question 163

Why is schematic knowledge useful?

Answer 163

1. Allow us to form expectations 2. Play an important role in reading and listening because they allow us to fill in gaps so we can enhance our understanding 3. Assist us when we perceive visual scenes

Question 164

Consistency bias

Answer 164

People remember information consistent with their own views better than inconsistent information

Question 165

Three components of episodic memory

Answer 165

1. A system that allows you to encode that particular experience in a way that will distinguish it from others 2. A method of storing events in a durable form 3. A method of searching the system and retrieving a particular memory

Question 166

Features of Bartlett’s theory of episodic memory

Answer 166

1. Effort after meaning 2. Schemas

Question 167

Dual-coding hypothesis

Answer 167

Highly imageable words are easy to learn because they can be encoded both visually and verbally

Question 168

Levels of processing hypothesis

Answer 168

(Craik and Lockhart, 1972); Information is taken in by the organism and processed to varying depth

Question 169

Depth of processing

Answer 169

The proposal by Craik and Lockhart that the more deeply an item is processed, the better will be its retention

Question 170

How is depth of processing explained?

Answer 170

For positive items, the word to be recalled was integrated more closely with the encoding question, particularly in the semantic condition

Question 171

Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP)

Answer 171

Proposal that retention is best when the mode of encoding and mode of retrieval are the same

Question 172

Incidental learning

Answer 172

Learning situation in which the learner is unaware that a test will occur

Question 173

Maintenance rehearsal

Answer 173

A process of rehearsal whereby items are kept in mind but not processed more deeply

Question 174

Elaborative rehearsal

Answer 174

Process whereby items are not simply kept in mind, but are processed either more deeply or more elaborately

Question 175

Intentional learning

Answer 175

Learning when the learner knows that there will be test retention

Question 176

Which type of rehearsal enchances delayed long-term learning?

Answer 176

elaborative rehearsal

Question 177

Subjective organization

Answer 177

A strategy whereby a learner attempts to organize unstructured material so as to enhance learning

Question 178

What factors encourage chunking?

Answer 178

Semantic categories, hierarchical structure, linking information in a coherent stories, visual imagery

Question 179

Hemispheric Encoding and Retrieval Asymmetry hypothesis

Answer 179

Tulving’s proposal that the encoding of episodic memories involves the left frontal lobe whereas their retrieval depends on right frontal areas

Question 180

Modal model of working memory

Answer 180

Environmental input –> Sensory registers –> Short term store –> Long term store

Question 181

Short term store

Answer 181

a crucial part of the working memory system that is responsible for selecting and operating strategies, for rehearsal, and a global workspace

Question 182

Multicomponent model of working memory

Answer 182

Consists of phonological loop, the central executive, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer

Question 183

Phonological loop

Answer 183

Term applied by Baddley and Hitch to the component of their model responsible for temporary storage of speech-like information

Question 184

Visuo-spaital sketchpad

Answer 184

A component of the Baddley and Hitch model that is assumed to be responsible for the temporary maintenance of visual and spatial information

Question 185

Central executive

Answer 185

An attentionally limited system that selects and manipulates material in the subsystems, serving as a controller that runs the whole show

Question 186

Semantic coding

Answer 186

Processing an item in terms of its meaning, hence relating it to other information in long-term memory

Question 187

What is the purpose of the phonological loop?

Answer 187

facilitates the acquisition of vocabulary, grammar and reading

Question 188

Episodic buffer

Answer 188

A component of the Baddley and Hitch working memory model, which assumes a multidimensional code, allowing various subcomponents of working memory to interact with long-term memory

Question 189

Visual cache

Answer 189

A component of Logie’s model of visual working memory. It forms a counterpart to the phonological store and is maintained by the inner scribe, a counterpart to phonological rehearsal

Question 190

Supervisory attentional system

Answer 190

A component of the model proposed by Norma and Shallice to account for the attentional control of action

Question 191

Binding

Answer 191

Term used to refer to the linking of features into objects or of events into coherent episodes

Question 192

How many chunks of information can the episodic buffer hold?

Answer 192

4

Question 193

How is information retrieved from the episodic buffer?

Answer 193

Through conscious awareness

Question 194

Cowan’s embedded processes theory of working memory

Answer 194

Working memory depends on activation that takes place with the LTM and is controlled by attentional processes

Question 195

Engle’s inhibitory control theory

Answer 195

Performance on a complex span task is made difficult by the need to protect the memory of the presented items from proactive interference

Question 196

Proactive interference

Answer 196

The tendency for earlier items to compete at retrieval with the items to be recalled

Question 197

Inhibition

Answer 197

A general term applied to mechanisms that suppress other activities

Question 198

Resource sharing

Answer 198

Use of limited attentional capacity to maintain two or more simultaneous activities

Question 199

Task switching

Answer 199

A process whereby a limited capacity system maintains activity on two or more tasks by switching between them

Question 200

Long term working memory

Answer 200

Concept proposed by Ericsson and Kintsch to account for the way in which long term memory can be used as a working memory to maintain complex cognitive activity

Question 201

Spatial working memory

Answer 201

System involved in temporarily retaining information regarding spatial location

Question 202

Object memory

Answer 202

System that temporarily retains information concerning visual features such as color and shape