MIDTERM

Question 1

Olaudah Equiano

Answer 1

slave taken to virginia
later freed and settled as merchant in England
wrote an autobiography that became a classic in the anti-slavery movement

Question 2

how many slaves were transported in the transatlantic slave trade

Answer 2

11 million in total
6 million in just the 18th century

Question 3

mercantile capitalism

Answer 3

arose from tensions between mercantilism and capitalism
saw private individuals controlling trade, an early start to capitalism

Question 4

the Portuguese Empire

Answer 4

one of the earliest seafaring people from the C15
Vasco de Gama first to reach India in 1498
Alvares Cabral reached Brazil in 1500
set up trading posts throughout Africa, the middle east and south asia but it became too large to defend its own territory at the end of the early modern period

Question 5

the spanish empire

Answer 5

Columbus landed in Cuba in 1492
the Columbian exchange killed 80-95% of the native population
Corteis and Pizarro conquered Aztec, Mayan and Inca empires with other conquistadors
Spain dramatically weakened at the end of the early modern period

Question 6

the dutch empire

Answer 6

not interested in political control
1602 dutch east india company set up
had a monopoly over many spices
capital of colonies Batavia in Indonesia
less successful in the west (e.g. New Amsterdam –> New York)

Question 7

the french empire

Answer 7

Colbert’s colonial expansion as part of mercantilist policies (North America)
Port Royal founded after Quebec founded
expanded down the st lawrence and the mississippi to the south
sugar plantations in the caribbean
Pondicherry

Question 8

english empire

Answer 8

english east india company set up trading posts
strong army and navy which saw british rule over india
sugar plantations in the caribbean
13 colonies set up in NA mainland
Hudson bay company had control over Rupert’s land

Question 9

the Ottoman empire

Answer 9

founded in C13 ended Byzantine empire
expanded into SE Asia, central europe,north and east africa, caucuses and west asia
nearly took vienna in 1693
successful because sultans didn’t marry, there was no succession crisis, didn’t have nobility but gave important positions to slaves

Question 10

the russian empire

Answer 10

from 1613 ruled by members of the Romanov dynasty who held power till the russian revolution
they expanded to siberia all the way to the pacific
Peter the Great was the first to look westward, built a western style capital on the baltic (St Petersburg)
ruled despotically

Question 11

trial of jean calas

Answer 11

1762
protestant merchant in toulouse who faced an unfair trial because of his faith
it was taken up by Voltaire who wrote a book on it, catching the attention of the king
Voltaire used it to show everything wrong with the system and the necessity of the rule of law, reason and respect for human dignity

Question 12

what are some of the main principles of the enlightenment

Answer 12

reason should be the primary source of authority and legitimacy, not arbitrary powers of monarchs, the church or tradition
people should be able to think and speak as they like
emphasis on free speech

Question 13

how did the enlightenment come about?

Answer 13

associated with death of Louis XIV
linked to three major changes
1. heliocentric view of the universe
2. new physics like Newton
3. a scientific method of inquiry

Question 14

what did Kant say about the enlightenment

Answer 14

people fail to think for themselves and are stuck in a childlike state, obeying authorities over their own reason
change should not be revolutionary but rather gradual

Question 15

what did Voltaire say about the enlightenment

Answer 15

attacked the Catholic church
favoured the english style of government with a limited monarchy
not a democrat

Question 16

what did Montesquieu say about the enlightenment

Answer 16

favoured a separation of the three branches of government with checks and balances
not a democrat, favoured aristocracy

Question 17

what did Rousseau say about the enlightenment

Answer 17

more radical, his concept of the general will advocated popular sovereignty and democracy

Question 18

how did enlightened absolutism occur in Prussia?

Answer 18

Frederick II in the 18th century - modernisation of absolutist power
took Siberia and saw the partition of Poland
he was seen as the ‘first servant to the state’
undertook enlightened reforms like reforming the justice system, elementary education, abolished capital punishment, ended forced labour of the peasant population and religious toleration

Question 19

how did enlightened absolutism occur in Austria?

Answer 19

Maria Theresa mid 18th century
undertook greater centralisation, taxes, army reform
enlightened measures continued under her son
enlightened reforms whilst maintaining absolutist control

Question 20

how did enlightened absolutism occur in Russia?

Answer 20

Catherine the Great
her reforms were more moderate and she struggled in many areas

Question 21

what are the three long term causes to the french revolution

Answer 21

1. financial crisis
2. political crisis
3. crisis of public opinion

Question 22

what were the short-term causes of the French Revolution?

Answer 22

• The Paris Parlement refused more loans in 1785, forcing the recall of the Estates General.
• Government bankruptcy (1788), high bread prices, and heavy taxation led to unrest.
• The king’s call for cahiers de doléances raised hopes for reform.
• The Third Estate demanded more representation but was rejected.
• The Third Estate broke away, declaring themselves the National Assembly and vowing to draft a constitution

Question 23

what was the first phase of the French revolution

Answer 23

Early Revolts & Reforms (1789): The sans-culottes stormed the Bastille (July 14), sparking the revolution. Peasants revolted during La Grande Peur, leading to the abolition of feudalism (Aug. 4), and the Declaration of the Rights of Man was issued (Aug. 26).

Political Changes & Crisis (1789–91): The October Days forced the royal family to Paris, church property was nationalized, and the Constitution of 1791 established a constitutional monarchy. The king’s failed Flight to Varennes (June 1791) shattered trust.

War & Radicalization (1791–92): France declared war on Austria and Prussia (Apr. 1792), and on Aug. 10, the sans-culottes stormed the palace, imprisoning the king and starting the revolution’s radical phase.

Question 24

what was the second phase of the french revolution?

Answer 24

Radicalization & Republic (1792–93): The Legislative Assembly dissolved, replaced by the Convention (elected by universal suffrage). The September Massacres saw over 1,000 prisoners killed, and on Sept. 21, France was declared a republic. King Louis XVI was executed on Jan. 21, 1793.

War & Internal Conflict (1793): France faced war with major European powers, leading to mass conscription and the Vendée rebellion. The sans-culottes expelled the Girondins (June 2), leaving the Jacobins under Robespierre in control, who introduced The Terror to suppress opposition.

The Terror & Its Fall (1793–94): Over 25,000 people, including Marie Antoinette and the Girondins, were executed. Mobilization for war strengthened France, but growing unrest led to the execution of Danton, Hébert, and finally Robespierre (July 28, 1794), ending the radical phase.

Question 25

what was the congress of vienna 1814-1815

Answer 25

meeting of Russia, Austria, GB, Prussia and France To create a new political order in Europe after the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte To restore the pre-Napoleonic territorial order To prevent future conflicts between European powers To create a balance of power so no one country could dominate outcomes: Established the German Confederation Outlawed the Atlantic slave trade Created strong border states to prevent France from becoming too powerful Established Congress Poland with Alexander as king Regulated international shipping traffic Established Swiss neutrality

Question 26

what is the 'hundred days' episode

Answer 26

when Napoleon escaped from Elba, reaching Paris and declared himself emperor again led to the battle of waterloo (British and Prussian forces) Napoleon was exiled to St Helena

Question 27

how was the opposition of conservatism and liberalism seen in Portugal, Spain and Italy?

Answer 27

Portugal: After the Liberal Revolution (1820) and Brazilian independence (1822), King João VI returned to Lisbon, while his son Pedro I ruled Brazil, highlighting tensions between monarchy and liberal nationalism. Spain: Independence movements led by Libertadores like Bolívar and San Martín ended Spanish rule in Latin America by 1825, aided by British support. A liberal coup briefly ousted Ferdinand VII (1820), but he was restored by French intervention (1823). Conflict in the two ideologies especially seen in South America Italy: The Carbonari led liberal revolts in Naples and Piedmont, but Austrian forces under Metternich crushed them, maintaining conservative rule.

Question 28

how was the opposition of conservatism and liberalism seen in Austria and Russia?

Answer 28

Holy Alliance: Austria, Russia, and Prussia formed the Holy Alliance in 1815 to restore autocratic rule and Christian values. Austria's Repression: Francis I of Austria (1792–1835) opposed constitutional limits, using surveillance, while some limited reforms existed in Hungary/Transylvania. Russian & Polish Uprisings: The Decembrist revolt (1825) in Russia was crushed, and in Poland (1830), an independence movement was defeated, with harsh reprisals.

Question 29

how was the opposition of conservatism and liberalism seen in Greece?

Answer 29

Greece fought for liberty (1821–1827), winning with a GB/French/Russian victory over the Ottoman/Egyptian fleet at Navarino (1827).

Question 30

how was the opposition of conservatism and liberalism seen in France?

Answer 30

Bourbon Restoration: Louis XVIII conceded a charter in 1815, but was unpopular due to high taxes. His brother, Charles X (1824), enacted reactionary reforms that angered many. July Revolution: Charles X’s attempt to suppress liberals with the July Ordinances (1830) led to his abdication and the rise of Louis Philippe, a more constitutional monarch. Belgium’s Independence: Inspired by France, Belgium gained independence from the Dutch (1830–1831) under King Leopold I.

Question 31

how was the opposition of conservatism and liberalism seen in Britain?

Answer 31

Near Revolution: Britain faced economic hardship, high unemployment, and unequal representation, leading to events like the Peterloo Massacre (1819) in Manchester. Political Reforms: Recognizing the need for stability, Britain granted more freedoms to Protestant Dissenters and Catholics (1828–1829). Electoral Reform: The Whig government, under Earl Grey, passed the Great Reform Act of 1832, expanding the franchise and making elections fairer.

Question 32

what is coketown

Answer 32

a fictional place that is the setting of Dickens' "Hard Times" shows everything that went wrong with the industrial revolution

Question 33

why was Britain the first to industrialise?

Answer 33

wool: created spin off jobs to facilitate the trade, growth of port cities in exportation and relatively high wages that meant people could buy more than just basic necessitities agriculture: urbanisation due to wool meant less farmers, had to more innovative, enclosure replaced by open field, natural selection for farming coal: demand increased, Britain had lots of mines, hard to reach so caused innovation (steam engine) cotton: better than wool so popular, caused demand but hard to make, creation of steampowered looms over handlooms transport: massive increase in roads, canals, railways etc. most efficient transportation infrastructure

Question 34

what were some consequences of industrialisation?

Answer 34

population explosion: no incentive to postpone marriage, more likely to marry early and have more children, more children = more wage income acceleration of urbanisation: caused terrible housing conditions (think Engels condition of the working class in England) e.g. Manchester, average life expectancy less than 20

Question 35

what was the irish famine

Answer 35

- the population doubled 1780s-1840s to about 8.2 million - there was a heavy reliance on potatoes but a disease massively reduced the crop - a million died and more than a million emigrated - population dropped 20%

Question 36

what was the backdrop to the 1848 revolutions

Answer 36

the hungry 40s: - economic crisis that had a knockon effect on industry that led to businesses collapsing and banks failing - governments sent in troops to quell riots making them look insensitive and incompetent chartism in Britain: - 1832 great reform act increased suffrage but still excluded working class - 1838 people's charter called for change, created a labour movement july monarchy in France: - Louis Philippe's government was elected by 1% of the population - government repression widespread - weren't allowed to hold meetings so held reform banquets, the 1848 one was banned causing revolution

Question 37

what was the 1848 February revolution in France

Answer 37

Revolution of 1848: After a banquet ban, protests erupted, and the National Guard refused to intervene, leading to 1,500 barricades in Paris. Louis Philippe abdicated, and the "Second Republic" was declared. Early Reforms & Socialism: The new government enacted universal suffrage, freedom of speech, and religion, and created National Workshops to provide work. However, fears of socialist power grew, leading to the closure of workshops after the April elections. June Days & Napoleon's Rise: The June Days uprising (June 23–26) was crushed, leading to Presidential elections. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, promising order and appealing to peasants, won with overwhelming support. He later staged a coup in 1852, declaring himself Emperor Napoleon III and establishing the Second Empire.

Question 38

what were the 1848 revolutions in Britain and Ireland?

Answer 38

Chartist Demonstration (1848): Inspired by Paris, Chartists organized a demonstration in London, planning to march on Parliament for reform. The government banned the march and deployed thousands of soldiers, leading to a smaller turnout. The Chartist leaders chose not to confront the authorities and disbanded the protest. Nationalism in Ireland: Following the failure to repeal the Act of Union, Young Ireland sought an uprising in 1848, but the movement lacked coordination with the Chartists and was weakened by the trauma of the famine. The rebellion was easily suppressed by the authorities.

Question 39

what were the 1848 revolutions in Germany?

Answer 39

Revolution Spread (1848): Revolution spread from France to Germany, forcing states to implement liberal reforms like elections and freedom of press, with even Frederick William IV of Prussia conceding some changes. All-German Assembly: German states elected delegates to an assembly in Frankfurt to discuss national unification. However, splits over class and the "Great Germany" vs. "Small Germany" debate weakened the movement. Failure of Unification: Despite offering the crown to Frederick William IV, he rejected it, and by mid-year, monarchs were able to overturn liberal governments, effectively ending the revolution.

Question 40

what were the 1848 revolutions in the Austrian Empire?

Answer 40

Revolution in Vienna (1848): In March, barricades were built, and Metternich fled as liberal reforms were introduced. However, the “National Question” divided the region. Hungarian & Czech Autonomy: Lajos Kossuth led the Hungarians in demanding autonomy, while the Czechs sought independence from Vienna, setting up a government in Prague. But both movements faced opposition from the Austrian Empire. Crushing of Revolutions: The Prague uprising was crushed in May, and with Russian help, Emperor Franz Josef defeated the Hungarian republic by April 1849. While the revolutions failed, their liberal, nationalist, and socialist legacies lived on

Question 41

why did nationalism rise to prominence in the 19th century?

Answer 41

rise of schooling meant increased literacy this was the first time a national language was possible it saw the expansion of the state that brought together disparate communities around a dominant culture lots of little groups brought together

Question 42

what are the three phases of nationalism in the long 19th century (french rev to wwi)

Answer 42

civic nationalism: american and french revolutions, overthrowing the old order, authority resides in the nation liberal nationalism: middle class liberalism, unification of Germany and Italy, self-determination for those who were large enough and had an established culture, smaller people expected to join larger group ethnic nationalism: mass support, labour movements, period of intense rivalry between states demanding loyalty (patriotism going hand in hand with nationalism)

Question 43

what was the risorgimento

Answer 43

the move for Italian independence - Italy divided after Napoleon - attempted 1848 revolution shut down (Mazzini) - then there was a combined effort from Garibaldi and Cavour to drive the Austrians out - italy gained independence in 1861

Question 44

how did German unification take place?

Answer 44

Zollverein (customs union) created economic unity among German states under Prussian leadership. 1848 revolutions failed, and Frederick William IV rejected a unified German crown. Bismarck led unification through three wars: Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870–71). Wilhelm I crowned Kaiser in 1871, completing German unification.

Question 45

what was the ausgleich

Answer 45

Ausgleich (meaning compromise) created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary after Austrian military defeats. Hungary gained internal autonomy, but Magyars and Germans dominated, suppressing other nationalities. Rising nationalism among Czechs and South Slavs led to growing instability in the empire. u ## Footnote 1867

Question 46

who are some examples of prominent 19th century liberals

Answer 46

Thomas Babington Macauley: prophesied expanded population, better fed and in better houses Utilitarians the liberal PM Gladstone JS and Harriet Taylor Mill: 'subjection of women'

Question 47

what was the romantic movement

Answer 47

1800-1850 rejected enlightenment rationality in favour of emotion glorified past, medievalism, gothic etc. a feeling people were being turned into machines

Question 48

who is an example of a 19th century romantic

Answer 48

Robert Southey: wrote a romantic piece that called for revitalised Tory paternalism

Question 49

what was utopian socialism

Answer 49

they favoured the community as the fundamental unit of society not the individual recognised as the first wave of socialism

Question 50

who are two utopian socialists

Answer 50

robert owen: cotton manufacturer near glasgow who created 'colonies' of mutual cooperation for his workers charles fourier: french writer who created the 'phalanster', designed to house a thousand people, tried a bit in the US

Question 51

what is revolutionary socialism

Answer 51

Marx and Engels social scientific method, history is governed by class conflict

Question 52

what is an example of revolutionary socialism in action

Answer 52

the Paris commune in 1871 a revolutionary government after France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian war violently suppressed by the French government during 'bloody week' in May

Question 53

what was revisionism

Answer 53

Shift from revolutionary socialism to gradual reform through politics and unions. Bernstein's theory: Argued Marx was wrong about workers’ impoverishment; socialists should work within current systems. Supported in Germany and Britain, rejected in Russia and Spain (where anarchism thrived). Paris Commune failure showed revolution was unlikely. World War I exposed weakness in socialist internationalism, as most parties supported their national governments.

Question 54

what is an example of a city redesigned in the late 19th century

Answer 54

barcelona by Ildefons Cerda the Eixample grid that demolished the old city walls (also Paris, Vienna)

Question 55

what was the second industrial revolution based on

Answer 55

steel electricity chemicals petroleum

Question 56

example of steel in the second industrial revolution

Answer 56

Henry Bessemer found a way to remove impurities by oxidation from steel

Question 57

example of electricity in the second industrial revolution

Answer 57

Michael Faraday made the use of electricity in technology Edison invented the electric lightbulb

Question 58

example of chemicals in the second industrial revolution

Answer 58

revolutionised production of soaps, textiles and fertilisers

Question 59

example of petroleum in the second industrial revolution

Answer 59

internal combustion engine powered by petroleum and air, more efficient than steam engine

Question 60

what were two consequences of the second industrial revolution

Answer 60

massive urbanisation: London population went up by millions from 1850 to wwi, governments respond with rapid urban development inflation and depressed prices: caused working class agitation and the era of economic liberalism was coming to an end u

Question 61

how did mass culture grow as a result of the second industrial revolution?

Answer 61

reading: newspapers like daily mail grew, sensationalist stories cinema: lumiere brothers, le voyage dans la lune, french dominate industry sport: spread of spectator sports, football spreading across the continent by 1900s, olympic games revived seaside resorts: railway to Nice opened the south of france, seaside towns like blackpool grew in the UK shopping: shopping malls built, women allowed to be out on their own religion: secularism in working class men fought back against by the church e.g. pius ix

Question 62

who were some critics of progress?

Answer 62

Henrik Ibsen's plays in Norway attacked hypocrisies of bourgeois life Freud attacked rationality italian philosopher croce argued objective truth about the past was impossible this all had little impact on the majority who until wwi clung to science, reason and progress

Question 63

who was george ives

Answer 63

founded one of the first gay rights organisations in the UK 1983-4 called the order of chaerona, reflecting the common habit of gay men to look to antiquity to justify their homosexuality in an oppressive, conservative environment

Question 64

what were the wilde trials

Answer 64

Wilde fell in love with Lord Alfred Douglas an investigation into their relationship caused Wilde to be charged with 'gross indecency' in court he pled his love for men was platonic and thus superior to love for the opposite sex but he was found guilty and sentenced to 2 years hard labour

Question 65

what was the idea of the sin of sodomy

Answer 65

in the bible it gave the idea that it was a sin that every man was susceptible to in the same way that every man was susceptible to greed or sloth

Question 66

what was the medicalisation of homosexuality

Answer 66

sexuality was seen as a symptom of larger moral decay caused by urbanisation this larger, wealthier urban society saw the rise of medical and psychiatric professions sex emerged as a distinct field of inquiry

Question 67

who was karl heinrich ulrichs

Answer 67

homosexual sexologist argued all sexes were the same in the womb, then they separate into either male, female or the uranian who has the sexual organs of one sex but the desires of another because this was a part of nature he argued that it was cruel to punish them for it

Question 68

what did havelock ellis and edward carpenter argue

Answer 68

that homosexuality was innate but a harmless variation that was no more significant than something like colour blindness they deserved all the normal rights as anyone else

Question 69

what did freud argue about homosexuality?

Answer 69

a form of arrested development the child got stuck at a primitive stage of psychic evolution homosexuality was the result of environmental influences in the early stages of development

Question 70

what did Alfred Kinsey argue

Answer 70

american biology professor in the later 20th century found in a study that homosexual behaviour was normal, saw everyone as inherently bisexual just to different degrees just as in nature nothing is binary

Question 71

when was the battle of waterloo

Answer 71

1815

Question 72

when was the congress of vienna

Answer 72

1815

Question 73

when was italian unification

Answer 73

1861

Question 74

when was german unification

Answer 74

1871

Question 75

when was the romantic movement

Answer 75

1800-1850

Question 76

when was the enlightenment

Answer 76

all of 18th century

Question 77

when was the communist manifesto published

Answer 77

1848

Question 78

when was the paris commune

Answer 78

1871

Question 79

when was bernstein's evolutionary socialism published

Answer 79

1899

Question 80

when was the development of cities

Answer 80

late 1850s

Question 81

when was the second industrial revolution

Answer 81

1850-1900

Question 82

when was sex established as a scientific discipline

Answer 82

the late 19th to early 20th centuries

Question 83

how does the map of europe change throughout the 19th century

Answer 83

- the poland-lithuanis empire is gone by 1800 - same time the habsburgs become the austrian empire - French empire goes crazy 1800-1815 - France demolished 1815 in congress of vienna - in 1860 Italy divided into Piedmont-Sardinia, the two sicilies and the papal states - 1861 its unified - 1867 north german confederation - 1871 germany is unified - mid-1860s Austrian empire becomes the austrian-hungary empire - 1880s edge of Ottoman empire eroded e.g. romania and serbia