Midterm Flashcards
What were the 7 magistracies in Roman government (in order)
- Consul
- Praetor
- Aedile
- Quaestor
- Tribune
- Censor
- Dictator
What were the duties of the Consuls
Execute laws (e.g. war); Imperium
What were the duties of the Praetor
Legal disputes; backup Imperium
What were the duties of the Aediles
City maintenance/infrastructure
What were the duties of the Quaestors
Finances
What were the duties of the Tribunes
Civil rights
What were the duties of the Censors
Census, audit, they could also kick people out of upper class ranks (not necessarily out of office)
What were the duties of the Dictator
National emergencies (martial law)
What were the roman periods in order?
- Regal Period (753 - 509)
- Republican Period (509 - 27)
- Imperial Period (27 BC - 476 AD)
Explain the regal period
Rome was ruled by kings, ended with King Tarquin the Proud who was overthrown
Explain the republican period
Rome became a republic with elected officials and a Senate, expanded its influence but faced internal conflicts and civil wars
Explain the imperial period
Began with Augustus as first emperor, Rome reached peak but declined due to economic, political, and military issues, ended with fall of the Western Roman empire
What were the seven hills of Rome?
The hills where Rome was founded, offered a favourable defensive location against invasions, nearby Tiber River allowed for trade and transportation (salt flats nearby = trade)
Put the following events in order for the archaeological timeline of Rome:
- Rome inhabited (Romulus’ hut)
- Stone buildings
- Village & Wall
- Widespread Destruction
- Drainage of Valleys
- Paved Road & Villas
- Rome inhabited (9th C)
- Village & Wall (750)
- Drainage of Valleys (650-550)
- Stone Buildings (625)
- Paved Road & Villas (525)
- Widespread Destruction (500)
Who were the legendary brothers credited with founding Rome
Romulus and Remus
Who were the magistrates?
Elected officials that had authority in republican Rome
Explain the dynamic between plebeians, patricians, and magistracies
Patricians were aristocratic families in Rome and monopolized magistracies (concentration of power), plebeians sought political representation (social tensions known as “conflict of orders”), eventually plebeians gradually gained access to these offices (more inclusive political system)
Describe the War with Latins
Occurred between 498-493 BC, escalated tensions between Rome and coalition of Latin city-states, war concluded during Battle of Lake Regillus where Rome won, Cassian Treaty in 493 BC concluded the war (established mutual defense alliance between Rome and Latin League)
What did the Cassian Treaty allow Rome to do?
- Rome alternates leadership with other cities
- Rome gets half of all spoils taken in war
- All cities have free trade, marriage, and immigration
What was the struggle of the orders?
Occurred between 509-287 BCE between Patricians (wealthy families in Rome) and plebeians (limited rights, no government representation), social unrest
Put the following ‘Struggle of the Orders’ events in order:
- Plebeians can marry patricians
- Tribunes created to protect the plebeians
- Plebeians can pass laws binding on all Romans
- Plebeians can be public officials
- Laws of the 12 Tables
- Tribunes created to protect the plebeians: 494 BCE
- Laws of the 12 Tables: 452 BCE
- Plebeians can marry patricians: 445 BCE
- Plebeians can be public officials: c. 366 BCE
- Plebeians can pass laws binding on all Romans: 287 BCE
Explain what the Tribune of the Plebs was
Magistracy in Rome designed to protect rights of the plebeians and balance power, could veto actions by other magistrates that were harmful to plebeians, tribunes could propose laws that applied specifically to plebeians (until 287 BCE when laws affected all Romans)
Explain the senate in Roman society
Life-time membership, composed of all who have ever held office in the ‘cursus honorum’ (all magistrates), they advised officials and the roman people but had no specific authority
Explain the assemblies of citizens
The roman people met in an assembly to vote, rarely voted directly on governmental matters but instead voted for magistrates
Explain the power of the Roman army
Since there were such large numbers, they had political clout, they could refuse to serve/fight, they could also proclaim and depose emperors for this same reason
What were the elements of the Roman army?
Legions: heavy infantry, roman citizens
Auxiliaries: other forces, non-Roman allies
Praetorians: bodyguard to the emperor (Imperial Era)
What was the difference between the legion in the early and the late republic?
Early: amateurs drafted and all fought in a simple line, paid for own equipment and served for one battle season
Late: Legion becomes sub-group of all those drafted; fights under assigned commander, clear chain of command, standard weapons, same group of soldiers tended to be recruited into the same legion whenever drafted
Describe the Reforms of Marius
Occurred in 110 BC, no land requirement to join, each commander recruits his own army, equipment provided by the state, procedures for promotion, social and political repercussions these changes brought about
Who were the Auxiliaries?
Non-citizen drafted allies, ‘light’ infantry, each unit composed of the same tribe or ethnicity, usually about as big as the legionaries, could be voted retirement/full citizenship, specialized forces (cavalry, archers, slingers)
Who were the Praetorian Guards?
Bodyguards to the emperor, roughly 8,000 men, significantly better benefits
What were some reasons the Roman military was so successful?
- Discipline (training, decimation)
- Technique (roman roads, battle tactics)
- Bravado (battle monuments, military culture)
In Roman religion, there were many deities that needed priestly roles. What were the priestly colleges in ancient Rome?
- Pontiffs
- Flamens
- Augurs
- The 15 Men
What did the pontiffs do
administrative, made religious contracts, all led by the pontifex maximus (chief priest of Rome)
What did the flamens do
priests dedicated to the worship of specific gods
What did the augurs do
interpreted omens, determined whether or not something was ‘favourable’, highly influential in Roman society
What did the 15 men do
15 high-ranking priests responsible for overseeing most important sacred texts and rituals in Roman religion, specifically in charge of maintaining the ‘sibylline books’, a collection of prophetic writings believed to contain divine guidance, used to determine proper response to crises like plagues, disasters, or military defeats
What were the various types of Roman religion/spirits
- Deities
- Animistic spirits (numina)
- Family ancestors and spirits
- Personal magic
What were Lares and Genius?
Lares: Guardian spirits, usually ancestors
Genius: Powerful spirit protecting an individual
What were some elements of personal magic in ancient Roman religion?
Amulets, curse tablets, horoscopes, ghosts, etc.
Explain the three roman names people possessed
People had a first name, last name, and distinguishing name (i.e. Gaius Julius Caesar)
Put the four periods of Roman Law listed below in chronological order:
- Classical
- Formative
- Vulgarizing
- Primitive
- Primitive (800-200 BC)
- Formative (200-30 BC)
- Classical (30 BC - AD 250)
- Vulgarizing (AD 250-534)
Explain the civil procedure of ancient Rome
- Formulation of the problem
- Selection of Judge
- Trial
What was the distinction between civil and statutory law in ancient Rome?
Civil: Governed rights and duties of Roman citizens (property, contracts, family relations), primarily unwritten and based on customary practices
Statutory: Consisted of written statutes enacted by legislative bodies, including Senate and popular assemblies
What was the criminal procedure in ancient Rome?
Predominantly private with individuals responsible for initiating prosecutions, state intervened in cases of treason and other severe crimes, process involved a preliminary hearing before a magistrate followed by a trial where both parties presented their cases, judgments rendered by a judge or a panel of judges and penalties varied from fines to corporal punishment/exile
What were permanent courts?
Rome established permanent courts to address the increasing complexity of legal cases, they were presided over a praetor and had juries composed of senators or equestrians depending on the court
What were some traits about the actual practice of Roman law that might differentiate it from modern law?
Not available to non-Romans, focus on retributive justice rather than rehabilitative justice, also use of delatores (informers providing evidence/accusations against others in legal cases, often associated with corruption/false accusations/erosion of justice in Rome)
In the textbook, there was a subheading called “Warfare and the Civic Order”. Explain this
Warfare shaped Roman society by directly linking military service with political rights and social structures by doing the following:
- Servian Constitution (c. 570–550 BCE): Introduced military reforms linking military duty to wealth, creating the comitia centuriata.
- Tributum: Tax levied on citizens based on wealth to fund military campaigns.
- Military Reforms: Transitioned from a citizen militia to a professional army, with conquered peoples (socii) integrated into the military.
- Social & Political Implications: Military success influenced Rome’s civic order, with land and spoils from conquests redistributed, affecting social mobility and wealth distribution.
In the textbook, there was a subheading called “Rome in Latium & Campania”. Explain what happened here
- Samnite Wars (343-290 BCE): Series of conflicts between Rome and the Samnites, a powerful group in central Italy
- Rome fought the first war against the Samnites (343-341 BCE)
- Rome battled the Samnites and Etruscans (327-303 BCE)
- Rome faced a coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, Gauls, Umbrians, Sabines, and Lucanians (298-290 BCE)
In the textbook, there was a subheading called “Conquest of the South”. Explain the conquest of the south
- War with Pyrrhus (280-272 BCE): Conflict between Rome and King Pyrrhus of Epirus, who supported Tarentum against Roman influence.
- Tarentum vs Roman “Clients”: Tarentum allied with the Lucanians and Bruttians, who were under Roman influence.
- Pyrrhic Victory: Pyrrhus won costly battles, but suffered devastating losses, leading to his eventual withdrawal.
- Rome Controls All of Italy: Following Pyrrhus’s defeat, Rome gained control over the entire Italian peninsula, solidifying its dominance.
Why did Rome seek an empire?
- Ambitious Military Commanders: Leaders sought glory and power through military conquests.
- Economic Motives: Expansion provided resources, wealth, and new trade routes.
- Paranoia/Justified Aggression: Rome feared threats from neighbouring states and justified its wars as defensive or preemptive.
How did Rome hold onto its Empire?
Rome’s System of Treaties and Alliances: Rome used treaties and alliances to integrate conquered peoples, ensuring loyalty and maintaining control over vast territories.
What were the degrees of citizenship in Rome?
1) Roman Citizenship
- Citizens of Rome
- Cities/citizens granted full citizenship
2) Allies
- No rights, no property tax, but had to supply troops
3) All other peoples in Italy (provincials)
- no civil rights
- had to give up “public land”
- had to pay taxes and had to supply troops
What was the ‘nobility’ in ancient Rome?
Patrician/plebeian distinction was no longer important following the struggle of the orders, so the “nobility” was a new aristocracy. ‘Nobiles’ referred to politicians/families who had a relative that had been a consul (replaced patrician/plebeian distinction). If a Roman individual was the first in his family to be elected to high political office, he was referred to as novus homo (new man). The focus of the nobility was on holding office/remaining influential (pressure to hold position).
Describe the Wars with Carthage
- Carthage (Phoenician city-state): A powerful maritime and mercantile empire based in North Africa, known for its shipping, trade networks, and strong navy.
- Roman-Carthaginian Treaties: Early in the Republic, Rome and Carthage established treaties to avoid conflict, particularly over trade and territorial interests in the Mediterranean.
- Rivalry: Tensions escalated as both powers sought dominance in the western Mediterranean, leading to the Punic Wars.
Describe the First Punic War
- Occurred between 264 - 241
- Messana & Syracuse: The conflict began over control of Messana (in Sicily), where both Rome and Carthage had interests. Syracuse, a powerful Greek city-state, was also involved.
- ‘Sons of Mars’: This term referred to the soldiers of both Rome and Carthage, who were engaged in the conflict, each fighting for their empire’s dominance.
- Roman People Vote for War: Unlike previous wars, the Roman Senate allowed the people to directly vote on declaring war against Carthage.
- Roman Army vs Carthaginian Navy: The war was primarily a naval conflict, where Rome, initially inexperienced at sea, built a strong fleet to challenge Carthage’s powerful navy.
What was ‘the raven’
A novel naval weapon used by the Romans during the First Punic War (264-241 BCE) to counter Carthage’s superior navy. A large, boarding device attached to the ships, mechanical arm with a sharp, metal beak that could be dropped onto enemy ships
What were the peace terms after the first Punic war?
- Rome gained control of Sicily after the first Punic war (1st overseas province)
- After the war, Carthage faced a revolt from its mercenaries who had not been paid, leading to internal instability and a revolt from Carthage’s mercenaries
- Corsica and Sardina were also taken following Carthage’s weakening, expanding Rome’s territorial holdings in the western Mediterranean
Describe the Second Punic War
- War began after Hannibal’s attack on Saguntum, a city allied with Rome in Spain (Hannibal was commander of Carthaginian forces). This was a direct violation of the treaty between Rome and Carthage, sparking the conflict
- Hannibal was brilliant, so Rome was on the defensive for much of the war
- espite the heavy losses, Rome eventually adapted its strategy under leaders like Fabius Maximus (Cunctator), who adopted a strategy of attrition (the “Fabian Strategy”), avoiding direct confrontation and cutting off Carthage’s supply lines
- war ended with a decisive Roman victory at the Battle of Zama, where Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal
- Carthage was forced to surrender, losing its empire and becoming a client state of Rome. Rome imposed harsh peace terms, limiting Carthage’s military, requiring massive war indemnities, and taking control of Spain, effectively weakening Carthage for the long term
What were the effects on Rome after the Punic Wars
- Rome became a first-class military power
- Adaptation and change in Roman society and Constitution (Non-Romans/slaves recruited to army; non-Senators enrolled in Senate, Changes to imperial administration, Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus - general who won at Battle of Zama)
What were veristic sculptures?
Highly realistic portraits from ancient Rome, often exaggerating details to emphasize age, experience, and wisdom
What was the Nodus
A knot/bun of hair at back of head, style that portrayed modesty in Rome
Describe Roman slavery
- Much Roman evidence for slavery
- Roughly 35% of the population in Italy were slaves
- Sources: war captives, piracy, and bred slaves
- Slave Resistance
- Sabotage and flight
- Silanianum
- Manumission
Describe what the protections of slaves were in ancient Rome
Slaves were technically property under Roman law, but some legal protections existed, especially regarding their treatment. For example, the Roman government would intervene if a slave was being tortured or killed without justification. However, the intervention was usually minimal and depended on the status of the master.
Describe the first slave war
- Occurred in 135 - 132 BCE
- Led by Kind Eunus in Sicily
- War highlighted the harsh conditions of slavery and Roman reliance on slave labor, especially in agricultural production
- Conflict was a major challenge to Roman authority and security in the province of Sicily
Describe the second slave war
- Occurred in 104 - 100 BCE
- Sparked by harsh conditions for slaves and led by a leader named Salvius.
- Roman military commanders such as Gaius Marius and Sulla played significant roles in defeating the rebellion
- During this period, the Roman government conducted investigations concerning the presence of enslaved citizens and free-born individuals who may have been coerced or illegally enslaved. Many slaves who rebelled had been seized or trafficked, and their status was sometimes questioned by the authorities
- The war reinforced Rome’s reliance on slave labor and raised awareness about the treatment of enslaved people in the empire.
Describe Spartacus’ Slave Revolt
- Occurred between 73 - 71 BCE
- Spartacus Slave Revolt began with 70 gladiators and grew to a force of 60,000-120,000 slaves.
- Spartacus, a gladiator and former soldier, became the leader of the rebellion.
- Roman military, led by Crassus and Pompey, eventually suppressed the revolt.
- Aftermath of the revolt included the brutal crucifixion of 6,000 rebels along the Appian Way as a public deterrent.
True or False: Rome delegated control of its provinces to governors rather than directly managing them from the capital
True, this led to Rome controlling/expanding its empire without overextending itself but also led to exploitation and corruption
Describe the legal status of Roman provinces
- Not part of Italy and had fewer rights than Roman citizens
- Each province had its own set of laws and customs
- Governors wielded ‘imperium’, meaning they had supreme military and judicial authority within their province
How were governors selected and what were their duties?
- Governors were usually former consuls or praetors assigned to a province for one year (but sometimes longer)
- Duties included defending province from rebellion/invasion, overseeing taxation (publicani handled this), enforcing Roman law, managing trade/infrastructure
Explain the provinces in Spain and their reaction to Roman rule
- Following second Punic war, Rome established control over Spain
- Roman veterans were settled in newly founded colonies to secure loyalty and Romanize the region
- Spain had a lot of silver wealth, heavily exploited and economic asset for Rome
- There was a fierce resistance to Roman rule from the natives (Lusitanians/Western Spain: Waged guerrilla war against Rome, leader was assassinated; Celtiberians/Central Spain: Multiple wars against Rome, final resistance ended with mass suicide over surrender to Rome)
What was Rome’s relationship with the Greeks?
- Rome ‘freed’ the Greek city-states from Macedonian rule in the second Macedonian War (200-196), but Rome maintained influence over Greece after this
- Kingdoms within Greece remained semi-independent but were loyal to Rome
- Rome claimed to uphold Greek freedom but frequently intervened in local affairs
- Set stage for further conflicts leading to direct Roman rule over Greece and Asia Minor in the following century
Describe the Third Punic War and the “Punic Curse”
- Occurred in 149 - 146 BCE
- Rome was wary of Carthage’s economic recovery, so found a pretext for war when Carthage resisted Numidian aggression
- Culminated in complete destruction of Carthage in 146 BCE
- The Third Punic War ended with Rome defeating its greatest rival and securing control of southern Mediterranean
- “Punic Curse” was the idea that Rome ‘cursed its land’ to ensure it could never rise again due to the destruction, harsh treatment from Rome, and its long-term consequences that served as a warning to Rome’s enemies
Explain how the senate’s influence changed within Rome
- Originally was an advisory body but became dominant force in Roman politics
- Controlled military, provincial governance, and treasury funds
- Wielded informal power through patronage and experience despite being technically subordinate to popular assemblies
- Laws were created to restrict individual politicians/commanders
There is a subheading called “Italy and the Consequences of Empire”. Explain what the consequences were
- Harsh consequences for cities that sided with Hannibal during Second Punic War (loss of autonomy and land confiscations)
- Limited political rights, even if loyal to Rome during war
- Continued tensions eventually led to demands for citizenship culminating in Social War (91-88 BCE)
Explain what life was like for Roman and Italian elites
- Forbidden from engaging directly in trade/business
- Well respected (nobiles)
- Had a lot of influence, arguably the most influence in Roman society
- Spent vast sums on luxury items, particularly after conquest of Carthage and Greece, marking status
- Detachment from ordinary citizens fuelled social tensions
Who was Tiberius Gracchus
- During life, saw growing dissatisfaction among Roman lower classes due to land inequality and concentration of wealth
- Became tribune of the plebs in 133 BCE to address these issues
- Proposed bill that aimed to redistribute public land back to poor Roman citizens
- Bill was controversial and opposed by senate
Who was Gaius Gracchus
- Tribune of plebs in 123 & 122 BCE, following in footsteps of his broth Tiberius
- Introduced broader legislative agenda aimed at social reform
- Senatus Consultum Ultimum: Decree made to allow consul to take whatever measures necessary to preserve safety of state, including force, which led to downfall and death of Gaius Gracchus
What was involved in Gaius Gracchus’ legislative package?
- Land law: Extend redistribution of land and enhance social mobility of lower classes
- Grain law: Provided subsidized grain to Roman citizens to address food insecurity among lower classes
- Equestrians in juries: Allowed equestrians to serve as jurors in trials, shifted power away from Senate
- Proposed citizenship upgrade for Non-Romans in Italy: For some of the Italian allies who fought for Rome to allow for better integration, rejected by many in the Senate
What was the Populares and the Optimates?
Populares: A political faction that represented the interests of the common people (plebs) and sought reform through popular legislation. The Gracchi brothers were associated with the populares, advocating for land reforms, grain subsidies, and greater power for the lower classes.
Optimates: The conservative faction, primarily consisting of the aristocracy and wealthy landowners, who opposed the reforms of the populares. They sought to maintain traditional senatorial power and often viewed the populares as a threat to the stability of the Roman Republic. The conflict between the populares and optimates was a key feature of Roman politics in the 2nd century BCE.
Describe the War with Jugurtha and Marius’ role in it
- Occurred between 112 - 105
- Conflict with Jugurtha (King of Numidia, North Africa) arose from struggle for power between Jugurtha and rival factions in Numidia, including his own family
- Jugurtha eventually gained control but struggled to maintain his power
- Jugurtha took advantage of corruption within Rome’s political system (he bribed a lot)
- Roman military campaign against Jugurtha didn’t do much and war was indecisive
- Marius was a successful general who was elected consul and put in charge of war
- Marius succeeded in defeating Jugurtha after he was put in charge
- Marius granted his soldiers land in Africa to maintain loyalty and reward his soldiers, but the increasingly close relationship between military leaders and their armies later became a destabilizing factor in Roman politics
There is a subheading in the textbook called “Italy Threatened from the North”. What was the threat and what happened?
- Occurred between 113 - 101 BCE
- Two tribes, Cimbri and the Teutons, migrated from beyond the Alps and began invading Italy
- Posed major threat to Rome and its allies, invasions considered one of the key threats to the Roman republic at the time
- Roman forces were defeated from 113 - 105
- Marius elected consul in 104 and enacted several reforms, and eventually won in 101
- Soldiers were not promised land at first, just ‘victory and spoils’, but after victory land was granted
- Victory led to a reinforcement of the growing influence of military leaders
Talk about Gaius Marius and his life, influence, and accomplishments
- A novus homo, born in 157
- Married into powerful Julian family
- Senate was generally hostile to Marius, viewing him as an outsider
- Presented himself as a defender of the common people and military leader that could lead Rome to victory by contrasting his experience with the failures of the Senate/aristocracy (they didn’t like that)
- Marius was elected consul for the sixth time in 100 BCE (unprecedented)
- Supported Saturninus’ land bill (provided land to veterans)
- His ex-soldiers physically patrolled the voting assemblies to intimidate voters and ensure he maintains political influence
- There was violence due to this in the elections of 99 BCE
- Senate passed Senatus Consultum Ultimum in 100BCE to grant Marius the authority to arrest Saturninus, showing that Marius was willing to turn against former allies to preserve stability of republic and his own position
Describe the Social War
- Occurred between 91 - 87 BCE
- Most Italian allies lacked Roman citizenship, causing social/economic divisions
- Various Italian tribes revolt due to Senate’s refusal to grant citizenship, beginning Social War
- Revolting Italians create their own capital, ‘Italica’, which becomes central hub for anti-Roman forces
- Sulla appointed to Senate to command Roman armies against the rebels and succeeded
- After years of conflict, citizenship was granted to Italians who fought on Roman side
There is a subheading called the “Tribunate of Sulpicius Rufus”. What happened during this time?
- Occurred in 88 BCE
- War was declared against Pontus as it was perceived to threaten Roman interests in Asia Minor
- Sulla was elected consul in 88 and given command in the war
- Marius was a rival of Sulla, and supported full votes for Italians as a platform for getting elected to command the war
- Political violence erupts in Rome as Sulla’s supporters clash with Marius’ allies, and Marius succeeds
What were Sulla’s marches on Rome? Talk about them, the timeline, and why they happened
- Sulla defied the senate due to Marius’ actions in trying to take control of the War against Pontus
- Marched on Rome with his army of six legions, unprecedented action in Roman history
- Declares Marius and others ‘enemies of the state’, caused leaders to flee the city with Marius
- Sulla proceeded to fight Mithridates (Pontus king) despite Marius technically having control
- Marius returned to Rome after Sulla left and engaged in political purges against Sulla’s allies
- Marius died in 87 BCE shortly after this, but the struggle continued under Cinna now (who did eventually grant citizenship to non-Roman Italians)
- Sulla returned to Rome for a second march in 83-82 BCE
- He retook Rome in 82 BCE and defeated Cinna’s forces, declared dictator
- Implemented political reforms, including strengthening the Senate and limiting the power of the tribunes
Talk about Sulla’s dictatorship
- Started in 82 BCE
- Began with Sulla’s proscriptions (82 - 81 BCE), which were a series of political purges, compiled a list of enemies (500 equestrians & 100 senators) who were all killed and had property given to Sulla’s supporters
- Sulla was granted title of Dictator Perpetuus (dictator for life) in 82 BCE, giving supreme authority in Rome without limits
- Sulla strengthened the senate’s authority by reforming it to ensure that only senators could hold key political and military offices and restructured the judicial system by placing control of the courts in the hands of the Senate rather than the equestrians
- He actually retired in 81 BCE and resigned from his dictatorship (very surprising), showed his intentions to restore Roman traditions though his reforms had already caused significant political upheaval
- After his retirement, reforms faced significant resistance from Lepidus (supporter of Marius), and attempted to overturn Sulla’s reforms, but the rebellion failed and he died in 77 BCE, consolidating Sulla’s legacy for a time
There is a subheading called “Challenge from Sertorius in Spain”. What happened?
- Occurred during (80-73 BCE)
- After Sulla’s reforms, Roman republic faced internal turmoil, and one major challenge was posed by Quintus Sertorius (former Roman general)
- Sertorius fled to Spain following Sulla’s proscriptions, established rebel Roman Senate causing significant authority challenges in western provinces
- Sertorius was assassinated by his own officers in 72 BCE, likely motivated by dissatisfaction among his ranks, caused power vacuum
- After death, rebel forces in Spain were weak, but Pompey was given command to deal with the situation
Who was Crassus and what was his relationship with Pompey?
- Appointed to deal with Spartacus slave revolt in 72 BCE and won as primary commander
- Pompey was later involved in final defeat of remaining rebels, who claimed significant credit for ending the rebellion, forcing Crassus to share the glory and political credit (caused rivalry)
- Crassus and Pompey were elected consuls of Rome, forming temporary cooperation, where they reformed the judicial system and reversed some of Sulla’s proscriptions (improve political power of equestrians)
- Definitely tensions while they worked together though
There is a subheading called “Pompey frees the Mediterranean of Pirates”. What happened?
- Increase in bandits and pirates in the early 1st century
- Mediterranean sea became increasingly unsafe due to pirate activity
- Pompey given control to get rid of pirates in 67 BCE and given three years to carry out the campaign, treated it like a ‘province’ that he commanded due to its scale
- Divided Mediterranean into several regions, allowing for coordinated/rapid response.
- Pompey got rid of the pirates in the Mediterranean, but he didn’t wipe them out, and instead offered them land so they can be integrated into Roman society
There is a subheading called “Threat from King Mithridates of Pontus”. What was the threat and how was it dealt with?
- Mithridates capitalized on Roman unpopularity and campaigned in Asia Minor and Greece in 88 BCE
- Rounded up 80,000 Roman citizens and killed them
- Sulla attacked Mithridates between 87 - 85 BCE to reclaim authority in the East
- Sulla defeated Mithridates’ and retreated back to Rome, but offered a lenient truce with Mithridates where Mithridates could retain his kingdom and was permitted to withdraw his forces from Greek and Anatolian regions (seen as pragmatic decision to avoid further conflict)
Talk about the campaigns of Lucullus and Pompey against Mithridates
- Occurred between 74 - 63 BCE
- Rome’s second war with Mithridates (74 - 68 BCE) after Sulla’s truce and after Mithridates regained power in Pontus
- Lucullus (Roman general) initially tasked with war, campaigns were successful, but his armies suffered from mutinies and lack of support back in Rome
- Pompey given control of the war in 66 BCE despite Lucullus’ plans working
- Pompey quickly turned the tide of the war in Rome’s favour as his campaigns were more aggressive, and the war concluded in 63 BCE with Roman’s eastern influence being regained/growing
Who was Cicero?
- A novus homo
- Skilled lawyer/orator
- Elected to consul in 63 BCE due to his superior political rivals stepping down
- Involved in several important events, including handling of Catiline’s conspiracy
What was Catiline’s Rising
- Occurred between 63 - 62 BCE
- Catiline was a disgruntled patrician, unsuccessfully ran for consul twice, led to plot to seize power in Rome
- Cicero uncovered the conspiracy and acted swiftly to prevent it (he collected proof from people by getting actual signatures from fake contracts from politicians, etc.)
- Plot’s exposure led to Catiline’s flight from Rome and many of his co-conspirators were arrested and executed without trial
What happened when Pompey returned from the east in 62 BCE after his defeat against Mithridates?
- Pompey got so unbelievable wealthy (Romans didn’t have to pay tax for a while)
- Return of wealth stirred tensions with Roman elites, as many senators feared Pompey would use newfound wealth to challenge influence
- Upon return, Pompey faced political stalemate and couldn’t achieve political goals due to fear from the senate
- Sought land for his veterans and ratification of his settlements in the East, senate was resistant to both of these demands as they were seen as a threat to its authority
- A new conservative faction of senators emerged due to this concern, they sought to preserve traditional power structures of Rome
Who was Gaius Julius Caesar?
- Born into Julian family (descendant of Aeneas, Trojan hero)
- Early career had military and public service roles, including military officer and quaestor in Spain
- Gained early fame for public speaking skills and popularity with plebeians
- Founded first triumvirate, informal political alliance between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus (Pompey wanted land for veterans and recognition for conquests, Crassus wanted political support for his own agenda, Caesar wanted power and military command)
- With back of Pompey and Crassus, Caesar elected consul in 59 BCE, pushed series of reforms including land redistribution, ease debt of plebeians, strengthened populares alliances
- Clodius’ tribunate in 58 BCE helped Caesar (Clodius was ally), passed law exiling Cicero (opponent of Caesar), targeted senatorial power/elites, shifted to more populist measures in Rome
- First Triumvirate was renewed between 57 - 56 BCE where Caesar was given governorship over Gaul for five more years
- Crassus died while leading a military campaign against the Parthians, leaving Caesar and Pompey the only members in the triumvirate, and their relationship began to deteriorate
Talk about Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul
- Occurred between 58 - 51 BCE
- Systematically conquered various Gallic tribes, made him popular with Roman people and his legions
- Later invaded Britain and Germany, gained more power
- Gaul attempted an uprising in 52 BCE, but was suppressed
Talk about the civil war that emerged due to Caesar’s actions in Gaul
- The death of Clodius (supporter of Caesar) caused political instability, and Pompey was elected as sole consul
- Tensions between Caesar and Pompey grew
- Caesar’s command was set to end in 49 BCE (end of his five years), and senate feared his growing power
- In January of 49 BCE, Caesar made the famous decision to cross the Rubicon river, marking the boundary between Gaul and Italy, violating Roman law and initiated the civil war between Caesar and Pompey
- Caesar defeated Pompey in 48 BCE, Pompey fled to Egypt where he was later assassinated by the orders of the Egyptian king Ptolemy XIII who hoped to gain Caesar’s favour, but Caesar was angered by Pompey’s death since they were once allies
- Caesar forgave a lot of his enemies, including senators and supporters of Pompey, which didn’t necessarily make them happy
What did Caesar do as dictator?
- He was dictator between 49 - 44 BCE
- Economic measures to stimulate the economy (debt relief, reformed currency, distributed land)
- Corrected the calendar (365-day year, leap year every four years)
- Centralized tax collection to make a more equitable/efficient system
- Added two new building types: Forum Julium (honoured his military victories and the Julius family) and the Senate House (a.k.a. Curia Julia, where senate met to deliberate on political matters)
- Caesar was offered kingship by the senate in his final years of his life, but he refused because he still valued the republic’s ideals
- He was deified after his death (temples built for him)
- On the Ides of March (15 March) in 44 BCE, Caesar was assassinated by a group of Roman senators led by Brutus
What does the following excerpt describe?
“Everyone in the procession wore crowns. Trumpeters led the advance, and wagons laden with spoils. Towers were borne along representing the captured cities, and pictures illustrating the campaigns; then gold and silver coin and bullion, and similar
captured materials; then came the crowns presented to the general as a reward for his bravery by cities, by allies, or by the army itself. White oxen came next, and after them elephants and the captive Carthaginian and Numidian leaders. Lictors wearing purple tunics preceded the general; also a chorus of harpists and pipers—in imitation of an Etruscan procession—wearing belts and golden crowns, and marching in regular
order, keeping step with song and dance. One member of the chorus, in the middle of the procession, wearing a body length purple cloak as well as gold bracelets and neck lace, caused laughter by making various gesticulations, as though he were dancing in triiumph over the enemy. Next came a number of incense bearers, and after them the general himself in a richly decorated chariot. He wore a crown of gold and precious stones, and was dressed, in traditional fashion, in a purple toga woven with golden
stars. He carried a scepter of ivory, and a laurel branch, which is invariably the Roman symbol of victory. . . . The army itself was marshalled in squadrons and cohorts, all of them crowned and carrying laurel branches, the bravest of them bearing their military prizes. The men praised some of their officers, and ridiculed or criticized others; during a triumph there are no restrictions.”
The triumph of Scipio Africanus in 201 as described by the historian
Appian (Punic Wars 66)
What does the following excerpt describe?
“Just as Antiochus was approaching Ptolemy in order to gain possession of Pelusium
[entry point to Egypt at the eastern end of the Nile delta], the Roman commander
Popillius—being hailed with a greeting by the king, who held out his hand—had the
document containing the senate’s decree ready and so passed it to him, directing Antio
chus to read it first. . . . The king, having read the decree, said that he would like to com
municate the circumstances to his advisers. Popillius’ reaction was to do something that
seemed severe and utterly outrageous. Taking a stick of vine wood that he had in his
hand, he used it to draw a line around Antiochus and instructed him to give his reply to
the document from within this circle. The king was amazed at such assertion of authority
by this means, but after brief hesitation declared that he would comply with all the
Romans’ demands. With handshakes Popillius’ entire entourage then greeted him
warmly. The document ordered him to abandon his war against Ptolemy at once. So,
within the period that he was permitted, he led his forces back to Syria, aggrieved and
protesting, but for the time being submitting to the situation.”
A memorable act of diplomatic bravado in 168 by the Roman senate’s envoy
Gaius Popillius Laenas sufficed to forestall an invasion of Egypt (under the rule of King
Ptolemy VI) launched by King Antiochus IV of Syria.
What does the following excerpt describe?
“When Scipio thought that a sufficient number of soldiers had entered the city, he sent
most of them—as is the Roman custom—in pursuit of the inhabitants, with orders to
kill everyone they encountered, sparing nobody, and not to start pillaging until the
order was given. They do this, I think, to inspire terror, so that when cities are taken by
the Romans, one may see not only the bodies of human beings, but also dogs, cut in
half and the dismembered limbs of other animals. On this occasion, these scenes were
many, because of the number of people in the city. . . . After this, once the signal was
given, the massacre stopped and they began to plunder. At nightfall, those Romans
who had received orders to remain in the camp did so, while Scipio with his thousand
men camped in the citadel. Through the military tribunes he ordered the rest of the
troops to leave the houses, and then instructed them to collect their plunder in the
forum, unit by unit, and to guard it by sleeping there. . . . On the next day, the plunder
collected in the forum was divided among the legions in the usual way. After capturing
a city, the Romans deal with this matter as follows. Depending on the city’s size, on
some occasions a certain part of each unit and, on others, whole units are assigned to
collect plunder, but never more than half of the army does this, the rest remaining
under arms either inside the city or outside, ready for any trouble. . . . All the men who
are ordered to plunder bring back what they have taken, each to his own legion, and,
after this has been done, the military tribunes distribute the loot equally among every-
one, including not only those in the protecting force, but also those guarding the camp,
the sick, and anyone absent on a special assignment.”
Plunder was a major source of wealth for commanders and soldiers alike,
and the Romans developed highly formalized ways of acquiring it and distributing it. This
passage from Polybius describes the manner in which the army of Scipio Africanus looted
Carthago Nova in 209
What does the following excerpt describe?
“Every wild creature that lives in Italy has its own den
and place to sleep and shelter. But the men who fight and die for Italy have a share in
nothing more than its air and light. With their wives and children they roam homeless
and unsettled. It’s a lie when the commanders urge soldiers in battle to protect their
graves and shrines from the enemy. Not one of them has a family altar, none of these
Romans has an ancestral tomb. They go to war and die, rather, for the sake of others’
wealth and luxury. ‘Lords of the earth’ they’re hailed, but not one clod of it is theirs.”
Tiberius’ skill in appealing to the emotions of the crowd at a time of tremendous tension in Rome
