midterm

Question 1

Pre-Islam Arabia

Answer 1

center of Arabian civilization + focused in the southern tip. HUGE trading center

Question 2

Mecca

Answer 2

religious center. Arabs were polytheistic (multiple gods/deities and idols). Ka’ba is located here.

Question 3

Ka’ba

Answer 3

claim to have been built by Ibrahim, heart of hajj, HUGE black cube

Question 4

Pillars of Islam

Answer 4

core tenets and practices of Islam

Question 5

Hajj

Answer 5

pilgrimage required of Muslims at least once in life (if possible). Between Mecca and Medina

Question 6

Prayer (salat)

Answer 6

five times a day with varying rakaats for each prayer. The name of each prayer is fajr, dhur, asar, maghrib, and isha. Jummah (aka Friday) is a day of importance.

Question 7

Fasting (Ramadan/sawm)

Answer 7

Ramadan is a month of the lunar calendar where muslims fast

Question 8

Zakat

Answer 8

donation of charity, prioritize giving it back to community where that wealth was generated, 2.5% of your wealth ideally

Question 9

Shahadah (the creed)

Answer 9

belief Allah is only god and Mohamed is the last prophet

Question 10

3 major Islamic historical periods

Answer 10

Formative era: 610-661 AD
Classical era: 661 - 1200 AD
Medieval era: 1200 - 1700 AD

Question 11

Formative Era: 610-661 AD

Answer 11

Mohammed born in Mecca in 570 AD, first revelations from angel Jibril in 610 AD at age 40. Dies in 631 AD.
622 AD – calendar starts when he had to flee mecca

Question 12

Four Caliphs/Rashidun

Answer 12

Abu bakr – critical time after death of prophet – contained rebellions and disbelief
Omar – guided the spread of islam
Othman – definitive vers of the Quran written + murdered in Mecca
Ali – assassinated in Kufa Iraq leading the way for the rise of Shia in the schism

Question 13

Classical era: 661 - 1200 AD
Umayyads: 661-750

Answer 13

Mercantile family that took over caliphate with fam background, late convert muslims but financially backed.
Introduce significant changes: social philosophy – religious faith counted for little, tribal/blood relations superseded (pre islamic), religious outlook, and cultural orientation (islamic community to state)
Expansion based state with bureaucracy increasing with tribal practice of shura (council of tribal elders) and wufud (delegations sent by tribes to keep the caliphate informed about the interests)
Saw selves as more kings than caliphs

Question 14

Classical era: 661 - 1200 AD
Abbasid: 750-1200 AD

Answer 14

Descendants of prophet’s uncles and opposed the Umayyads
The positions of leaders was no longer primus inter pares (first among equals) as the case during the formative years
Emphasis on architecture and urban planning
Increased centralization
Achievements
Sunni fiqh or jurisprudence reached maturity through school of law
Codification of jurisprudence aka the science of hadiths
Sufism – came to existence as mystics whose esoteric included garments base of suf (cotton)
Built libraries and institutions of wisdom known as “bayt al hikam – house of wisdom”
By the end of the 9th century – they were more like puppet rulers – turkish mercenaries took over (seljuks)

Question 15

Classical era: 661 - 1200 AD
Crusades: 1095-1291

Answer 15

Series of european christian military enterprises 1095-1291
Threatened by turkic power/seljuks in anatolia, syria, and palestine
Byz appealed to the pop (Urban II) for milt aid, who appealed for christian kind to wrestle jerusalem from the mus
When muslims captured the space, the non-muslim spaces were largely untouched
The crusades were contrastingly not the same and showed intolerance and killed many

Question 16

Medieval era: 1200 - 1700 AD
Mongol Invasion

Answer 16

Destruction was in 1258 and 800k lives were lost. Practically razed and consider this as a holocaust
Decline of mongols
Broke into three w/ one based on iran/iraq - became muslims = ilkhanids).

Question 17

Three institutions important in capturing societies

Answer 17

Merchants
Clergy
And military (in that order)

Question 18

Medieval era: 1200 - 1700 AD 3 major civilizations

Answer 18

Ottomans (longest and most persistent)
Safavids
Moghuls

Question 19

Medieval era: 1200 - 1700 AD
Ottomans – founded by Osman (1259-1336) with the dynasty named after him

Answer 19

Began career in minor nomadic tribe in Anatolia and completed the following:
State building, expansion west, Constantinople capture
300 year long state with a single army, soldiers paid in land, military patronage system, and ruled large non muslim population
Administration – Suleiman established its peak with society divided into:
Muslims, non muslims, military
To be military or member of ruling class: had to be good muslim and follow Ottoman culture
State Service – head of state was a sultan not a caliph
Bureaucracy – imperial council, admin, and treasury
There were armed forces of the janissaries
Ulema – Learned institution was staffed by Ulema who enforced Sharia + trained next gen. Often in harmony with the state in comparison to the Safavids where they challenged the royal government.
Cultural face – as a sharia/sunni state, it was different from Safavid culture. Focused on the needs of the government. Arts, science, econ and more flourished.

Question 20

Suleyman the Magnificent

Answer 20

Complexity of the empire grew over time. Reached its peak under him as a multicultural, multi faith empire.

Question 21

Brilliant but stagnated empire

Answer 21

System was brilliant but military vitality depended on victories and expansion
Territorial limits reached + decay set in and a change in europe limited the scope
Ottomans couldn’t compete with european merchants
Industrialization in NW europe/capitalism while ottoman remained primarily a producer periphery
Created capitalism which didn’t require strict land to profit

Question 22

3 characteristics/contradictions of capitalism:
control productive assets aka capital vs labor aka control of bodies (creates first major labor markets/the great enclosures)

Answer 22

Capital wants to exploit workers as much as possible to gain max profit. Labor wants to gain more income.

Question 23

3 characteristics/contradictions of capitalism: small capital vs big capital

Answer 23

(sugar minor industries vs industries that use it). The interests of the product vs those who use it are not the same.

Question 24

3 characteristics/contradictions of capitalism: production vs consumption.

Answer 24

Systems ability is greater than ability to consume, an issue of overproduction. Equally, the ability to produce is easier than the ability to consume (it is cheaper to create than to buy it).

Question 25

Medieval era: 1200 - 1700 AD
Safavids: 1501-1736

Answer 25

Ulema independent of the state and speak against authority of the state often times
Not as large as the empire but roughly in the Iran area

Question 26

Medieval era: 1200 - 1700 AD
Mughal empire: 1526-1707

Answer 26

Islam appeared in 8th century and was through traders and the ulema
Ruled for like 2.5 centuries in South Asia
Efficient administration and high culture
Music, literature, architecture
Tolerance to non muslims
Hindu and muslim state
Akbar (1556-1605) was a great ruler
Also the creation of the taj mahal for Shah Jahan’s wife
Contributions
Bring subcontinent together through coast and overland trade
Hindus reached top gov jobs
Served in military
Made the spread of islam into east asia

Question 27

European Transformation – political and economic dev in europe + European Leap

Answer 27

political and economic dev in europe
Science and tech led the way: industrialization and war machinery
Symbolic colonial beginning of the era came: france invaded egypt in 1798
European society was reorganized
Nationalism and state: imagined communities
Why and how? Its the political economy and progress with the three contradictions that produced more than they could consume
The rise and consolidation of capitalism
Contradictions of capitalism
Is capitalism natural – adam smith
Think of there is a conflict that needs to be resolved one of two ways
Labor vs capital
Capital vs all cap
Production vs consumption
Creation of the third world

Question 28

European Challenges

Answer 28

Colonialism as an application of what made europe strong + bought the hardware, installed it in societies without understanding
Ex: Ottomans and Mohammed ali of egypt
Buy european weapons, machines
No change in the political and economic organization of society
Compare this to what japan ends up doing
Reforming societies and really learning how it works in germany
Adopt vs ADAPT!!!!
Imitative elites rather than origins

Question 29

Creation of huge inferiority complex

Answer 29

Western philosophy and scientific theories – challenged muslim world view of god
God’s relation with nature and human and after life: evolution
Challenge muslim social organization and values: autonomy and center of gravity
Not only physical domination from West to Muslim, but also spiritually challenged

Question 30

Muslim response: ottomans

Answer 30

Europeanization
Creation of new armys along european lines trained by prussia
Creation of secular laws (yanked french and swiss)
Established istanbul university
Sidelines the ulema
Created identity problems – colonial border rather than that of the islamic empires and Umma
Creation of ottoman nationality –all subjects of the sultan – muslim/christian under the same laws

Question 31

Young turks

Answer 31

Came to power in 1908 and initially supported supra national rather than turkish identity based on language – they did not see what they had in common with the turkish peasants
This was solved by the final european assault which reduced the empire territory to anatolian heartland
Turned to turkish identity
There is no longer an muslim ummah or an ulema

Question 32

Turkish republic

Answer 32

Gave life and substance to turkish identity via europeanization
Sultanate and caliphate abolished (23 AND ‘24 respectively)
Modern secular state – 1923
Sharia replaced by swiss code
Roman script replaced by perso-arab
The hat versus headgear
But also female MPs
Government control of islam
Islamic place regulated the mulahs and must subscribe to the state projects
Dress codes for women: as in universities, being outside (headcovering and etc was a nono)
England didn’t even have these principles – had to prove acceptableness

Question 33

Consolidating power in the Colony

Answer 33

Development of colonial allies
The nationalists
The secular-nationalists (secular schools to train locals to serve the empire)
The ulema (subject to mortify resistance)
Mao’s minor and major contradictions
Let’s put aside the minor ones and tackle the major issues of struggle of colonialism
This spread many other places in rebellion and revolt
Created a unique form of diverse experiences of these former colony nation states
Imagining the nation and the nature of economic restructuring!
elite, relative comfort and who don’t want to change it
VS others, those who struggle day to day life
Colonized captured by Britain then turns into countries but subjects to British influence
Resistance emerged as Britain tried to colonize more lands in Africa with local sentiments rise due to the colonization
Post independence struggles: Injustice, lack of development, and subservience of Western countries

Question 34

Muslim Diversity

Answer 34

Ethnic, Linguistic, Cultural, Racial, Economic, National (nearly 25% of the world’s population (1.9 billion))
Differences doesn’t mean conflict

Question 35

Natural relationships

Answer 35

a needed and reciprocal relationship (ex: student and teacher)c

Question 36

contingent relationships

Answer 36

coincidental, can exist together and independently (ex: running into a friend on the road)

Question 37

Diversity within the Faith

Answer 37

Sunnis – 90% of Muslims
Shi’ites – 10% of Muslims

Question 38

Shiia belief

Answer 38

Shi’ites believe the doctrine of Imam - charismatic authority invested only in the Prophet’s family
Imams - descendants of the prophet has absolute authority in the community - Ali
First Imam murdered by Kharijites in Kufa Mosque in 661
Hassan (older son retired in Mecca) and Husayn (Ali’s younger son) took charge and was murdered in Karbala (Iraq) by Umayyads in 680
Hasayn was beheaded when his troops were overwhelmed

Question 39

Week 1 – John Esposito (2016). Islam: The Straight Path. Chapter 1 (Muhammad & the Quran).

Answer 39

Thesis: Allah, the Quran and the Prophet Muhammed constitute the foundation of faith and belief for the Islamic World. The belief that all of these are immutable and to be patterned after have served as the challenge for Muslims in the struggle to interpret and apply these teachings.
Main Points:
Pre-Islam Arabia was a tribal society mixed with a few urban centers. Both polytheism and monotheism existed across the peninsula, but polytheism trumped Allah in the sense that each tribe had protective deities and idols. Mecca was the center of these values but also a center for trade between major populations.
Upon Muhammed’s revelations, his family and believers faced mounting opposition due to reformist attitudes to societies issues that threatened powerful entities. He still worked as a religious reformer of Arab traditions and Abrahamic practices. This could be seen with addressing inequity, the Kaba’s role, the protection of minorities like the Jews, and more. He introduced a new moral order not centered around tribalism, but rather around God’s will.
The creation of the umma and establishment of Medina as a holy city allowed for greater political and military pursuit of establishing power over the peninsula. This would be key in fortifying control over the holiest city of Mecca, which was highlighted in revelation based importance.
After his passing, Muhammed still serves as the final messenger and prophet who exemplifies what the ideal Muslim should aspire to.
The Quran is the universal given words to the people from Allah. Uneditable and infallible. Serves as a correction to other interpretations but establishes Islam as older than the rest because it is a return to God’s true will.
Muslim’s goal is to implement God’s will. Both his mercy and his justice. But also there is no original sin in Islam, just that humans are flawed creatures with personal sin, but equally hold the ability to repent and admit fault. The day of judgment serves as a reminder of personal responsibility and accountability of the believer.
Effectiveness of the argument: It isn’t an argument, but a contextualization of how Islam came to be and its values. Values that are ascribed in Islam are rooted in the incontestable nature of the Quran and Muhammed’s prophethood. Thus, it is easy to see when the text and hadiths are so unquestionable, that this causes the unique deviations and applications of Islam in comparison to the other monotheistic, Abrahamic religions.

Question 40

Week 2 - Carole Hillenbrand, 1999. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives. Chapter 2

Answer 40

Thesis: Outlines the context for which the First Crusades came to be and how the conquest occurred during a time of deep division and weakness for Muslim leadership. This left a deep political strain and emotional impact on the Muslim population in the face of such strong defeat.
Main Points:
Key to note that there are few historical documents that let us know what Muslims were thinking during this period. What has survived is limited and often laced with propaganda
Before the First Crusade in 1109, the years prior (1092-1094) saw heads of key powerhouses, the Seljuks and Fatimid Empire, die. This gave way to political anarchy and Muslim disunity. There is no evidence to suggest that the Europeans knew this would be an opportune time to attack though.
Dually, the Sunni Seljuks and Shia Fatimids saw no political nor religious reason to unite against the Crusaders.
Seljuks did not respond well to the forces and remained ununified while the nomadic Turks were limited in response abilities (there are also few records of their efforts from their perspectives seeing as they are nomads).
Shia schism with succession issues. Still, they took over Jerusalem and were suspected to have an alliance with the Byz Empire. Only for the alliance to crumble a year later with the Crusades taking Jerusalem.
Muslim willingness to collaborate with new enemies over traditional rivals at the expense of other Muslims.
Source discussion on what caused the Crusades leads to the conclusion that Muslim attitudes to Christians, while not antagonistic, were hostile and caused issues for proper observation of faith and life.
Muslim chronicles of this period do not link hostile actions with incentivization of the Crusades. But they do recognize hindering Christian pilgrimage with the attacks.
They did not see any specific religious motivation for the attacks and blamed the Fatimids for allowing them into the area.
As the attacks came closer, coverage from a Muslim perspective became fuller in comparison to early emptiness on the topic. There were tragedies in the attacks and destruction of Jewish synagogues alongside the war.
Muslim documents from the time record deep grief and shock at the losses incurred during the Crusades. Some even reflected that the infighting led to such defeat and became worse after the losses.
Franks/Crusaders did not keep too many states after success due to political understanding of distance between here and home and a lack of backup. There still was Muslim displacement in the expansion.
Fatimid response was one of acceptance that this was better than Sunni neighbors but also unable to militarily match the Franks.
Seljuk efforts were documented more kindly by muslim authors. Their success inflated and seen as successfully aggressive.
Effectiveness of the argument: Successfully explains how the Muslim disunity allowed for local interests to dictate how the politics and military success would go. Fatimids and Turks used the Franks for their own political goals and the Franks benefited from this schism. This event emotionally haunted the Muslim population and forced sources to downplay its effects. But still, the Crusades taught the population it needed to adapt to nontraditional invaders.

Question 41

Week 2 - Talal Asad, 1973. Two European images of non-European rule. Economy and Society, 2(3): 263-277.

Answer 41

Thesis: Functionalist anthropology and Orientalism are diverse scholarly perspectives that respectively work with African and Islamic societies. Yet, they are tools used in uniquely oppressing and subordinating the population of focus for the goals of imperialism.
Main Points:
In functionalist anthropology, the chief is a representative who listens to the will of the people in the tribe. This neglects the reality that these tribes were under imperial influence. Commissioners would be in the ears of tribe leaders and dictate what they did.
Focused on consent (and coercion as a tool of oppression)
In orientalism, focus is on how muslims endure tyranny under leaders. This fear is founded from the Ottoman empire and ability to contest and conflict with Christianity.
This gave the foundation for the idea that colonization of the Islamic world was a liberating and justified project
Vs being an imperialist expansion for gain.
Of course, these academics did not inherently know that their work justifies imperialism. Yet, this is the consequence of their work.
Effectiveness of arguments: This was strong evidence of colonialism and imperialism uniquely adjusting based on the context of each society. The academics would be removed from situations when making analysis but impact the material conditions of those living in these countries.

Question 42

Week 3 - Norman Itzkowitz (1972). Ottoman Empire and the Muslim Traditions. Chs. 1, 2.

Answer 42

Thesis: The Ottomans transitioned from scattered tribal/nomadic groups to a centralized Islamic state. This evolution can be attributed to the Ottoman’s establishment of bureaucracy, governmental strategies, and religious cohesion and lenience.
Main Points:
The Turkish tribes went through numerous rulers and successors that united under the shared goal of military success. Through this conquering of land, Ottomans established control in face of the declining power of other neighbors.
They sought to control existing rulers and then establish their own direct control
They then move into European controlled areas with the help of Islamic legal and admin practices.
Power is consolidated under Mohammed II through absolute rule. He also establishes Istanbul as capital, further centralizing power.
Through policies like the Janissaries and Timars, the Ottomans were able to both maintain control and incentivize varying groups to be invested in the empire.
Important to note that these policies would eventually erode the empire through corruption.
Effectiveness of arguments: Detailed narrative for centuries worth of change and advancement of the Ottoman empire. Gives key context for which Islam influenced and was integrated into policy and government

Question 43

Week 4 - Nikki Keddie (1994). “The revolt of Islam, 17000-1993: Comparative considerations and relations to Imperialism.” Comparative Studies of Society and History 36, 3:463-478.

Answer 43

Thesis: Modern revivalist revolts went through three phases, all of which were tied to increased Western interaction. These phases were the precolonial, early resistance to colonialism, and contemporary Islamic revival movements.
Main Points:
Islam and politics is not a new occurrence and has been around since the time of Muhammed. This can explain how Muslim revolts utilized jihad and Islamic law in response to increased dominance and interaction with the West.
In the first phase, increased trade with the West also increased socioeconomic stratification. This change required laws that responded to the increased need to protect economic gains in a culturally appropriate manner. Pre Colonial interactions with the Wahhabis, Sumatrans, and West African, highlights how Islamic law ushered by both the Ulema and charismatic leaders could address the needs of the people.
In the second phase, the colonial era, the socioeconomic stratification was compounded upon from the earlier phase. Islamic militant revolt in response to oppression highlights the anti-injustice aspects of jihad.
In the final phase, or contemporary revival movements, were a response to the inferiority created in both a failure to emulate the West and its promises and Western aggression and degradation of the Islamic world’s culture. Islam offered a counter to experiences of disillusionment and neocolonialism by recentering justice and equity.
Effectiveness of arguments: This is an excellent explanation of each case study and the similar key factors in phases of Islamic revolt. There is a lack of evidence in some sections, but still is an open ended argument that could adapt to regional differences

Question 44

Week 4 - Mouloud Feraoun. Journal 1952-1962: reflections on the French-Algerian war. Introduction

Answer 44

Thesis: Feraoun’s journals give a nuanced look into the violence of both the French and Algerian sides of the war. The author of the introduction makes clear that this is a supplement to ongoing historical events and the real consequences of war.
Main Points:
Feraoun was a French trained intellectual, Kabyle, and an Algerian. His identity is one of many intersections and interactions between himself and the French.
His views are antithetical to that of Fanon, FLN, and many leftist of the time. He cites growing concerns not of the use of violence in times of war, but when to stop violence and its consequences.
Feraoun is also cautious towards FLN leadership that is so cavalier with violence. He worries they may act too much like the French and that may have consequences for the future.
He also contests the idea that all advancements made under colonialism are inherently bad because of their innate “oppressive” ties.
Effectiveness of arguments: The argument is strong as it comes from someone who has deep roots with the conflict in all facets. Any worry that he is another liberal is dispelled with his recognition of oppression and violence of colonial projects. There is empathy and grief in his assessments that still maintains a caution about excessive violence beyond the need to do so. It is so compelling because of his status as an Algerian and his experience witnessing the immediate consequences, even losing his life for it.

Question 45

Week 5 - Annika Rabo. Faith, Identity in Northeast Syria. In L. Manger. Muslim Diversity (1999). Ch. 7

Answer 45

Thesis: Argues that Muslim life is not just revivalist political movements, but also their day to day. This gives a better look into how the political process comes to be.
Main Points:
Syrian political distinctions between the urban and rural and how power is spread amongst those groups.
Distinction in prayer practice (men separate, women in groups, young people not forced to until ready)
Fasting was often taken up more, even by those who dont pray.
Raqqa townsmen looking down upon the women that went to hajj to trade and used it as a cover up
There was a superiority among the men here in comparison to other groups, a cultural hierarchy. But none would claim the other as less pious, Islam connected them
Important difference between natives and newcomers (other syrian places). Natives said they had special customs and traditions which made them from newcomers.
These customs and traditions is their perception of being a good human being and good muslims
Effectiveness of arguments: This argument is good at depicting the contradiction of both the many Islams and oneness of Islam. There is a collective brotherhood or tribe, but also unique practices that flavor the application of what it means to be a good person and good Muslim. This contextualizes the way in which our unique upbringings and environment can affect the application of politics.

Question 46

Week 5 - M.M. Charrad (1998)/ Cultural Diversity within Islam: Veils, and Laws in Tunisia. In H. Bodman & N. Tohidi (eds) Women in Muslim Societies: Diversity with Unity. Ch. 4

Answer 46

Thesis: The author argues that there is diversity in interpretation and application of Islam, counter to stereotypes that paint Islam as a monolith. Using the experiences of both the individual and the state with the veil and family law, Tunisia is a case study on possible cultural images of Islam influenced countries that support women’s rights.
Main points:
The veil has varied political interpretations with some seeing it as oppressive and others marking it as a form of liberation and resistance. In Tunisia, a wide array of women wear the hijab and/or safsari. But the hijab carries other political ramifications like one’s affiliation with militant Islamism, sexual boundaries, seclusion, or protection. The fact that wearing it is a negotiation of one’s values can be a struggle.
This provides a window into the diverse range of choice and message in the act of veiling.
Family law is seen by Islamist as something to return to a strict and patriarchal structure. Reformers frame it as an opportunity to relieve subordination upon women. Both are Islamic as they use the religion as a guideline but take different takeaways in application.
Tunisia is of the latter group. With an entire generation growing up in a world with these reforms, it has now left an impact that this is just how life is, how Tunisian culture is.
Literacy has increased, so has women’s ability to advocate for their unique desires and wants.
Effectiveness of arguments: One of the most effective arguments as it gives both background to what the spectrum can be at both ends. Simultaneously, it situated Tunisian women and the government itself within this spectrum to prove that Islam is not monolithic. It allows autonomy and new cultural images to pop up and how these influence the interpretation of Islam.

Question 47

Week 1 (9/3) – Pillars of Islam

Answer 47

Goes over the five pillars of Islam, helpful for those that are not familiar with the main tenets.
The Shahada – the entry point into being a Muslim aka the witnessing and testimony of the heart. This is the belief that Allah is the one and only God and that Muhammed is the last and true messenger and prophet of Allah.
Salah – worship/prayer and connection between the Muslim and the creator. The submission to Allah.
Zakat – giving/alms. 2.5% of savings. Not obligatory if you cannot afford it.
Sawm – fasting during Ramadan. Permissibility for those that do not have the ability to fast to their fullest ability. Think diabetics that need insulin.
Hajj – for those that can afford to reenact key moments of pilgrimage: circling the Kaba, walking between safa and marwa.

Question 48

Week 2 (9/10) – Empire of Faith

Answer 48

The Awakening/Renaissance
Discussion about pilgrimage/hajj as a symbol for unity and equality. After Muslim control, they allowed for the free travel of inventions and goods during this period during this period of pilgrimage
Allowed for traders to also come in. Muhammed’s message was also traded along with those goods. It was geographically between the major empires.
Prioritization of science on a basis of creation of empire – baghdad house of wisdom
No inherent contradiction between science and the teachings of the Quran – it is all God’s plan. Diff from Christians etc.
Basis of numbers, hospitals (religious endowments)/quarantine, astronomy, anatomy, knowledge of lens and eyes
Paper as the benefit of knowledge being linked between the two and the spread of Islam and general knowledge
Spain tangent – Cordoba as a place where Europeans could enjoy Islam’s influence + the alHambra as a huge monument to architecture
AlHakim in egypt – not protecting christian/jewish spaces and attacked a holy church against tradition of protecting them
And triggered christian strife – he became the rule, not an exception, for their grievances. Even though the church was built back better
The crusades to get back at the Muslims. Jerusalem was taken and no one was spared, not even these “foreign” christians. The poems often grieve in these spaces and all that suffered,
Crusaders also built a ton of castles in their historical signs
Muslims saw trade as a uniting of cultures post Crusades and brought
Checks/suk were a novel invention – implies that there is a central bank and allows freedom of travel and repayment
Also came some of the great craftsmen and merchants. Textiles as a huge huge huge creation and selling point
Saladdin era – turning point for support and change of power against the Crusaders through military strength. Took three months but won.
Also he does retaliate against the populations. But also supported the christians that did stay
The Mongols killed many people and razed those knowledge spaces
But also essentially razed borders too and then they became muslims by the end AND then they became a huge supporter of the arts and science
The land will conquer conquerors

Question 49

Week 3 (9/19) – Ottoman Empire (no working link)

Answer 49

Ottomans: warriors of the faith (ghazi)
Osman the founder
Could not move east or South as those were lands of Muslims
Civilization was the goal, organization was the plan
Used the people in the lands conquered to work for them but also islamicized them
Recruited christian children, slavery without harsh treatment. Brought up as Muslim, were taught Arabic, through the caste system children could grow into higher positions in the empire.
If the father Sultan died, intense competition occurred to his sons AND brothers would fight and kill each other for no division in ruling power
By utilizing the Bosphorus Strait, the Ottomans were able to attack Constantinople
Attacked them during internal problems of Constantinople
Mohammed eventually invaded the walls Constantinople and went in the Church (turned to mosque)
Suleiman 10th sultan in 10th century of the islamic calendar
His bff, ibrahim, was a convert – was v helpful
First task was to expand empire – especially as a person that was thought of as a kid
He tackled belgrade and then rhome. Long standing assault that succeeded and now was taken seriously.
Europe began to fear this individual but within his own borders – law giver (bureaucratically v good)
Great at building beautiful buildings that inspired muslim faith – the mosques the sulaimania, the dome in jerusalem – an empire of faith
Huge patron of the arts tho
Great pomp and ceremony
Ibrahim – became pasha/grand vizier + married his sister and then became really powerful in leading battles, showed ability to rise through the ranks.
What is the harem – a private space/not inherently sexual. Mother had a lot of choices when it came to choosing his wives. But Roxlana became his wife later and also influenced him
Mustafa – his primary heir was v talent
One of his greatest rivals was the muslim safavids in persian/but turkic in origin
Sunni = doesn’t need to be related to mohamed, shiaa = does need to be related to mohamed
Didn’t see themselves as suni but it happened through the created rivalry between the two and there were was a war of ideology in the space
Cultural rivals too but not as good in the historians opinions
Was more interested in going to europe, he wanted to control the world tbh
Vienna was the first sign for europe that suleiman/the empire was defeatable
Hurrem new major wife – was also trying to compete and replace her own children as the heir apparents

Question 50

Week 4 (9/26) – Veterans: The French in Algeria

Answer 50

1962 was Algeria’s war for independence – even though Algeria was considered France’s territory and mainland France
The veterans of france who fought to keep Algeria – some are still bitter or grieving
Over a million settlers in algeria – but not equal rights to the algerians that were in the state
The sheer distance of the colonial state and violence to maintain the colony
The comparison of resources between populations became clear for some soldiers
Harkis – traitors now, but then they were the people hired by the french state
Some were hired because no group had a monopoly on savagery
Guerilla warfare of known as the Battle of Algiers – use of europeanized dress for women for terrorism
Use of alerian generals in the french army against the population
Use of torture
OAS – war within a war where Degal was the general keeping Algeria but also some soldiers were beefing with him
Algerian families lost so many people an was this a period of responding with vengeance
The settlers’ sob stories
Some acceptance to their right to self determination or others want algeria back
Harkis – still could not help those population and couldn’t emigrate to france… this is so sad im sick
The double bind of racism and lack of security at home
General Aussieres was a scapegoat as he wrote a book detailing the crimes of France and they put him on trial to evade blame.

Question 51

Week 5 (10/03) – Living Islam Vol.3: Struggling with Modernity

Answer 51

Struggle on tying past faith and beliefs with modern times
Significant influences and advances in astronomy, administrative, math, etc.
orthodoxy, political orthodoxy, religious orthodoxy
Muslim know their identity, ancestors and developments
Western world does “modernity”, Muslims have difficulty with this idea
modernity - coming into western ideas, discovering things.
Too much on economic progress and not much on Islam
Sufi tradition is a strong influence
Instead of conforming to modernity, wanted to re-establish and celebrate Islam
Islam is about unity, rejects compartmentability
Pakistan - home for Muslims
Pakistan struggled raising literacy levels
Combining modern structures with modern values of faith
Issues on gender discriminatory laws