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Geology > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Are formed by consolidation and cementation of sediments deposited under water

A

Sedimentary Rocks

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2
Q

Sediment Transport and Deposition
Ice, water, and wind can all transport particles of various sizes to another location

A

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

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3
Q

Conglomerates
Breccia
Sandstones
Shale/mudstones

A

Clastic Rocks

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4
Q

Organic Rocks
Carbonated Rocks
Evaporated Rocks

A

Chemical and Organic Rocks

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5
Q

Form due to decomposition of organic remains under temperature and pressure eg. Coal/Lignite etc.

A

Organic Rocks

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6
Q

Form basically form CaCO3 - both by chemical leaching and by organic source (biochemical) eg. Limestone; dolomite

A

Carbonate Rocks

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7
Q

These rocks are formed due to evaporation of saline water (sea water) eg. Gypsum, Halite (rock salt)

A

Evaporate Rocks

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8
Q
  1. Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rock and minerals
  2. Transportation by water, ice, or wind
  3. Deposition (Sediments is laid down)
  4. Compaction
  5. Cementation by silica or calcite
  6. Recrystallization
  7. Lithification
A

Dignesis Process

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9
Q

Cementation + Compaction =

A

lithification

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10
Q

Made up of rounded or sub-rounded pebbles and cobbles eg. conglomerate, breccia

A

Rudaceous Rocks

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11
Q

Made up of mainly sand eg. sandstone. These rocks are either accumulated by wind action or deposited under water action or marine or lake environment

A

Arenaceous Rocks

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12
Q

Made up of clay size sediments eg. Shale, mudstones, siltstones

A

Argillaceous Rocks

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13
Q

10mm & above - Conglomerate

A

Pebble

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14
Q

2mm to 10mm - Conglomerate

A

Gravel

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15
Q

0.1mm to 2mm - Sandstone

A

Sand

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16
Q

0.01mm to 0.1mm - Silt Stone

A

Silt

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17
Q

less then 0.01mm - Shale

A

Clay

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18
Q

The most abundant carbonate are limestone and dolomite, which are formed by chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate from sea water.

A

Carbonate Rocks

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19
Q

Evaporation is the major process involved in the deposition of chemical precipitate. The salt deposits formed by the evaporation of saline lakes are called evaporites the principal mineral of these deposits are chlorides and sulfates of Na, K, Mg & Ca. Example- Gypsum & Anhydrite

A

Salt Rocks

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20
Q

These rocks are formed by chemical precipitation of iron oxide. Such rocks contains a high proportion of iron bearing minerals such as Siderite, Hematite & Pyrite.

A

Ferruginous Rocks

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21
Q

These rocks are formed when silica is precipitated from water.

A

Siliceous Deposits

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22
Q

The biochemical sediments are produced when plants and animals living under water, extract from it dissolved mineral matter usually calcite to form Shell or other hard parts. Example - Limestone

A

Biochemical Rocks

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23
Q

Organic Rocks: Containing organic matter belongs this group. Example Coal these are called carbonaceous rocks.

A

Organic Rocks

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24
Q

Origin of Grains

A

Clastic or Non Clastic

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25
Q

Coarse grain

A

greater than 5mm

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26
Q

Fine grain

A

less than 1mm

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26
Q

Medium grain

A

1 - 5mm

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27
Q

Shapes of Grains

A

Angular, Sub Angular, Rounded, Sub Rounded

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28
Q

Opened packed / densely packed.

Related to litho stratigraphic pressure.

A

Packing of Sediments / Grains:

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29
Q

Sedimentary rocks containing elongated particles and their orientation demarks the flows of sediments.

Example. Rhyolites: High degree of crystallization / parallel axis of grains.

A

Fabric of Grains

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30
Q

The deposition of the sediments in to layer or beds are called Stratification. The plane dividing different beds are called bedding planes.

A

Stratification

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31
Q

________ is most imp. Feature of a sed.

A

Bedding

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32
Q

Rock Beds are usually > ______ Laminae< ______

A

1 cm

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33
Q

________________ helps in knowing the paleo-current direction of the old rivers

A

Orientation of bedding

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34
Q

The thin bedding less than 1 cm in thickness are called Lamination. Lamination is found in very fine grained rocks.

A

Lamination

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35
Q

In this structure minor beds or laminations lie at an angle to the planes of the general stratification.

A

Cross bedding or current bedding

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36
Q

____________________ is commonly found in shallow water and wind formed deposits. This structure shows rapid change in the velocity and direction of flow of streams or wind carrying sediments

A

Current bedding

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37
Q

In ________________ each bed shows a gradation in grain size from coarse below to fine above. This results by rapid sedimentation in water.

A

Graded bedding

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38
Q

The surface of some sedimentary deposits shows undulation on ripple marks. These are produced by the action of waves and current in shallow water, as well as on the surface due to wind action

A

Ripple Marks

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39
Q

Some bedding planes shows minor structures such as mud crack, rain prints etc. these are found in fine grained sedimentary rocks.

A

Minor Structures

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40
Q

What cause the landscape to be different?

A

Weathering
Erosion
Deposition

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41
Q

____________ is the chemical and physical/mechanical processes that change the characteristics of rocks on the Earth’s surface.

Occurs when rocks are exposed to the hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air)

These weathering agents can change the physical and chemical characteristics of rocks.

A

Weathering

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42
Q

________________ occurs when rocks are broken in to smaller pieces without changing the chemical composition of the rock. Think of a physical change (e.g., ripping a piece of paper) where the sample will change in size but all its other characteristics will remain the same

A

Physical weathering

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43
Q

____________ is the breakup of rock caused by the freezing and thawing (contracting and expansion) of water.

Water can seep into the cracks of a rock and as the climate cools the water freezes and expands breaking the rock apart. A very similar process occurs on roads, which causes potholes.

A

Frost wedging

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44
Q

These are examples of ___________:

  • Frost Wedging
  • Exfoliation
  • Abrasion
  • Biological Activity
A

Physical weathering

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45
Q

_______________ is the peeling away of large sheets of loosened materials at the surface of a rock. Common in shale, slate, and mica.

Rocks formed deep in the Earth are made under high pressure.

When the pressure is released the rocks expand & crack.

May also be caused by alternate heating and cooling of rocks by weather conditions.

A

Exfoliation

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46
Q

_______________is the physical wearing down of rocks as they rub or bounce against each other. This process is most common in windy areas, under glaciers, or in stream channels

A

Abrasion

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47
Q

_________________ is where the rock material is changed into another substance by reacting with a chemical.

A

Chemical weathering

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48
Q

These are examples of ___________:

  • Oxidation
  • Hydration

*Reaction to acid (Carbonation)

A

Chemical weathering

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49
Q

When oxygen interacts chemically with minerals. (ex. when a nail rusts)

A

Oxidation

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50
Q

When water interacts chemically with minerals. (ex: when hornblende and feldspar join with water they eventually form into clay)

A

Hydration

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51
Q

when carbon dioxide interacts chemically with minerals. Forms carbonic acid–> ex: dissolves limestone creating caverns and caves. Karst Topography

A

Carbonation

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52
Q

Occurs in limestone bedrock

limestone easily weathers chemically (carbonation) by weak acids in groundwater

landforms created:

-caverns

-sinkholes

-disappearing rivers

A

Karst Topography

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53
Q

Weathering occurs on the surface. More surface exposed, the faster the weathering will occur.

A

Exposed Surface Area

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54
Q

Some minerals are more resistant than others.

ex.: Quartz is resistant to chemical and physical weathering

A

Mineral composition

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55
Q

Not only is quartz the most stable of the common rock forming minerals in chemical weathering, its high hardness and lack of cleavage make it quite resistant to mechanical weathering. Quartz is itself an agent of mechanical weathering in the form of blowing dessert sand.

A

Resistance to Weathering

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56
Q

Cold and/or dry climates favor physical weathering.

Warm and wet climates favor chemical weathering.

Frost action works best in areas where the temperature fluctuates wildly.
Sent

A

Climate

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57
Q

When rock particles are smaller, the total surface area per unit volume exposed to weathering is greater.

For example, granulated sugar dissolves faster than a sugar cube.

A

Particle Size

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58
Q
  • is a combination of particles of rocks, minerals, and organic matter produced through weathering processes.
  • contains the necessary nutrients to support various forms of plant and animal life.
A

Soil

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59
Q

As a result of weathering processes and biologic activity, _____________form.

A

Soil horizons (layers)

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60
Q

Vary in depth depending on an areas climate and weathering rates

A

Soil horizons

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61
Q

refers to the organic material on the upper most part of the profile (this layer is usually very thin).

Dominated by organic matter, leaf and stem litter

Present in dense forests and in is olated patches elsewhere.

A

O horizon

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62
Q

commonly known as topsoil. this layer includes organic material (humus), such as fallen leaves, twigs, decaying plant and animal remains.

The material helps prevent erosion, holds moisture, and decays to form a very rich soil known as humus.

Provides plants with nutrients

Zone of accumulation of organic matter and nutrients (Most roots occur here)

A

A horizon -

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63
Q

Zone of illuviation (accumulation of clays)

is known as the subsoil.

much less humus.

usually will contain a fair amount of clay and iron oxides, but also may contain some elements from horizon A because of the process of leaching.

Leaching resembles what happens in a coffee pot as the water drips through the coffee grounds. Leaching may also bring some minerals from horizon B down to horizon C.

A

B horizon

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64
Q

Consists mostly of weatherized big rocks known as Parent material (the rock that the soil formed from).

A

C horizon

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65
Q

Which is not shown in this illustration, usually contains solid bedrock.

A

D horizon

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66
Q

_________ resembles what happens in a coffee pot as the water drips through the coffee grounds. Leaching may also bring some minerals from horizon B down to horizon C.

A

Leaching

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67
Q

How does climate affect weathering?

A

Warm and moist climates favor chemical weathering

Cold and dry climates weather physical weathering

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68
Q

____________ formed from rock that originated in that particular area and was weathered

A

Residual soil

69
Q

____________ formed from rock that weathered some place other than where it is found.

A

Transported soil

70
Q

____________ refers to the transportation of rock, soil, and mineral particles from one location to another.

A

Erosion

71
Q

Erosion is different from weathering since erosion has the ________ element.

A

Moving

72
Q

The main driving force behind all agents of erosion is

A

Gravity

73
Q

____________ is the primary agent of erosion on Earth.

A

Running water

74
Q

Most running water is found in

A

Streams and Rivers

75
Q

Sediments carried by a stream are almost always rounded due to the grinding action of the water on the rocks, a process called

A

Abrasion

76
Q

Influence a stream’s velocity and the erosion and deposition of sediments

A

Gradient (slope), discharge, and channel shape

77
Q

are eroded by streams

A

V-shaped valleys

78
Q

are eroded by glaciers

A

U-shaped valleys

79
Q

deltas, flood plains, and meanders are results of what a ________ can form.

A

stream

80
Q

____________ is the area drained by a stream and its tributaries (smaller feeder streams).

A

The watershed of a stream

81
Q

is the final step in the erosional-depositional system.

Rock particles picked up and transported will ultimately be deposited (left behind) somewhere else.

Final deposition of particles (sediments) usually occurs at the mouth of a stream. This is due to the faster flowing stream emptying into a slower larger body of water.

  • The sediments that were once carried down the stream are arranged from largest to smallest.
A

Deposition

82
Q

Factors affecting deposition

A

particle size, shape, density, and velocity

83
Q

Smaller particles settle more slowly than the larger particles, due to the pull of gravity.

The smaller particles tend to stay in suspension for longer periods of time.

This form of deposition is called graded bedding

A

Particle Size

84
Q

A round sediment compared to a flat (skipping stone) sediment of equal size will settle faster in a body of water.

This is due to the resistance the flat particle will undergo as it settles through the water. The round particle will meet little resistance and settle at a must faster rate.

A

Particle Shape

85
Q

If particles are the same size but have different densities the higher density particle will settle faster.

A

Density

86
Q

___________ of the transporting stream determines when sediments will be deposited.

  • If the stream slows down, carrying power will decrease and the particle sizes carried and deposited will also decrease.

If a stream is flowing faster, then the carrying power of the stream will increase and the sizes of particles deposited will increase as well.

A

Velocity

87
Q

As glaciers move over the land they act as a “bulldozer” changing the view of the landscape

As glaciers pass over the land they leave distinct features

A

Glacial Deposition

88
Q

broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is transported by the action of wind, water, or ice, and/or by the force of gravity

A

Earth material

89
Q

part of the earth’s surface which is physically, chemically and biologically distinct from adjacent areas

A

A sedimentary environment

90
Q

The characteristics of a sedimentary rock that can be observe

A

Lithology

Sedimentary structures

Fossils

91
Q

The characteristics of a sedimentary rock that are affected by its depositional environment are

A

Sedimentary Lithology (the minerals and texture of the rock)

Sedimentary Structures

Fossils

92
Q

Sedimentary structures and fossils are best found and examined in ________, where whole beds of sedimentary rocks are exposed in their undisturbed geological setting.

A

outcrops

93
Q

Terrestrial\Continental: Deposited on land or in fresh water

A

Fluvial Alluvial

Glacial

Eolian\Desert

Lacustrine

94
Q

Transitional: Deposited in an environment showing influence of both fresh water or air and marine water.

A

Deltaic

Esturine

Lagoonal

95
Q

Marine: Only influenced by sea water. Shallow marine clastic

A

Carbonate shelf Reefs

Continental slope

Deep marine

96
Q

Confined water body moving downhill in channels

A

River

97
Q

Processes associated with rivers and streams, deposits and landforms created by them

A

Fluvial

98
Q

Fluvial processes:

A

Motion of sediments

Erosion

deposition

99
Q

Almost straight, less bends

Consists of network of small channels

Separated by temporary islands called Bars

A

Straight Braided Rivers

100
Q

Straight Braided Rivers occurs in river with

A

high slope and large Sediments load

101
Q

Straight Braided Rivers Also typical in environments that dramatically decrease in

A

channel depth and channel velocity

102
Q

A sinuous river with bends

Forms as moving water erode stream at outer banks(widens the valley)

Deposition at the inner part of river

Snaking pattern as stream meanders back and forth

A

Meandering Rivers

103
Q

_________ lakes forms as meander gets cut off from main channel

A

Oxbow

104
Q

in this stage, High gradient, High velocity, Erosion, Tributaries, Straight\Braided, boulders mostly deposits

A

Young

105
Q

in this stage, Low Gradient, Erosion and Deposition, Meanders forms, Velocity decreases

A

Mature

106
Q

Boulders left at upstream in young age

A

Channel Lag

107
Q

in this stage, Very Low Gradient, Deposition, Low Velocity, Distributaries, Meanders

A

Old

108
Q

Sediments deposition in rivers

A

Bars

109
Q

Elongated naturally occurring ridges\walls of sediments which regulates water levels

A

Natural Levees

110
Q

Area of land adjacent to stream or river which experience flooding during high discharge

A

Flood Plain

111
Q

Formed when river breaks natural levees and deposits sediments on floodplain

A

Crevasse Splay

112
Q

Loose, unconsolidated (not cemented) soil or sediments

Eroded and reshaped by water in some form

Redeposited in a non-marine setting

A

Alluvium

113
Q

Fan or cone shaped deposits of sediments built up by streams

Stream enters from high-land to low-land

Typically found where canyons draining from mountain enters flat area

Poorly sorted material

Caused by flash floods

A

Alluvial fan

114
Q

Absence of marine fossils (Typically Unfossiliferous)

Presence of plant fossils

Red beds (Oxidation)

Scoured channels

Unidirectional-flow

Lamination, Cross-lamination, Ripple marks, Graded beddings

A

Diagnostic criteria

115
Q

Grain size, angularity decrease from source to mouth

Sorting, sphericity, roundness increases from source to mouth

A

Physical

116
Q

Desert areas cover about 20-25 percent of land surface

Within latitudinal belts about 10-30 degrees north and south

These areas have dry climate with low air pressure and low rainfall (<25cm \10 inches)

These dry areas are dominated by wind activity and covered by sand

A

Desert

117
Q

the removal of loose, fine-grained particles by the turbulent action of the wind

A

Deflation

118
Q

the wearing down of surfaces by the grinding action by windborne particles

A

Abrasion

119
Q

these are perpendicular to the prevailing wind, and form a wave like pattern

A

Traverse

120
Q

stretch parallel to the prevailing wind with rounded or pointed tops. These can reach 300m in height and range up to 300km in length.

A

Longitudinal (Seif) dunes

121
Q

A curved, arc shaped sand mound with horns facing downwind formed in arid regions.

A

Barchans

122
Q

These are U-shaped mounds that form in the reverse direction of a barchans. They consist of sand tails which may hold vegetation

A

Parabolic

123
Q

These are most commonly found on beaches, and are sandy depressions in a sand dune caused by the removal of sediments by win

A

Blowout

124
Q

These dunes are mounds that are subject to different wind directions, forming their star-like pyramidal structure.

A

Star

125
Q

This is the lightest material carried by the winds which form a so-called blanket covering the existing land. This blanket is easily eroded and rain penetrates through them rapidly

A

Losses

126
Q

desert alluvial fan, broad surface area, fine graine

A

Bajada

127
Q

Sand - Sandstone

Well sorted- large scale cross beds

terrestrial reptile traces

Vertebrates, pollen and spores (fossils)

Yellowish - brownish colour sediments

Hematite coating of grains

A

Diagnostic criteria

128
Q

Land locked water body having its own drainage system

A

Lake

129
Q

Still water in lakes permits very fine particles (fine sand, silt, and clay) to settle out and to form lacustrine deposits

These deposits get exposed by elevation of old lakebeds

Lacustrine deposits are very well sorte

Characterized by thin layers that reflect annual deposition of sediments

A

Environment

130
Q

in upper layer, fine particles

A

Overflow

131
Q

in between layers, medium size particles

A

Interflow

132
Q

at the bottom, coarse particles

A

Underflow

133
Q

lakes are formed from crustal stretching also known as rifting. Sediment influx is typically dominated by precipitation runoff and discharge through channels migrating towards the depression

A

Rift graben

134
Q

form lacustrine deposits from seasonal overbank flooding as well as precipitation runoff which refills these isolated basins with fresh water and new sediments.

A

Oxbow lakes

135
Q

form when terminal moraines block water from escaping the newly carved valley from glacial erosion. As the glacier melts, the valley fills with melt water that creates a glacial lake.

A

Glacial lakes

136
Q

can be meteoritic or of the caldera variety. Crater lakes sediments are provided from precipitation runoff descending their steep slopes

A

Crater lakes

137
Q

are characterized by low nutrient values, which limits the lake’s ability to support animal life, the water remains clear.

A

Oligotrophic lakes

138
Q

are characterized by high nutrient values, which allows microorganisms and algae to grow in large numbers, which then allows animals that feed on those algae to also be supported

A

Eutrophic lakes

139
Q

Lacustrine rocks appears circular to sub- circular in map

Fine sediments in middle

Turbidites

Rhythmic bedding (showing seasoning) Natron, Trona (salts)

Lamination (organic)

Siderite (Iron carbonate)

A

Diagnostic criteria

140
Q

Gastropods, Bivalves, Ostracods, Green Algae (charophytes)

A

Fossils

141
Q

Ice is a major transport process. Liquid water and wind can also transport sediment in these environments

Wind transport is common when there is little vegetation. Liquid water transport occurs when the ice melts

the high viscosity of ice makes all ice

transport of sediment laminar. grain

sizes are not sorted

All of the sediment is transported together, with the ice, and it is deposited when the ice melts

A

Glacial

142
Q

is the area above the firn line, where snowfall accumulates and exceeds the losses from ablation

A

Zone of Accumulation

143
Q

area of a glacier or ice sheet below firn with a net loss in ice mass due to melting

A

Zone of Ablation

144
Q

separates the accumulation zone from the ablation zone

A

Firn line

145
Q

type of snow that has been left over from past seasons and has been recrystallized into a substance denser than snow. It is ice that is at an intermediate stage between snow and glacial ice

A

Firn

146
Q

cracks in glacier

A

Crevasses

147
Q

___________ - glacier deposition making land features

Lateral: ridge of sediments along sides of glacier

Medial: ridges formed in middle of glacier

End\Terminal: ridges at the end (last stop of glacier)

Ground: thin sheet deposits

A

Moraines

148
Q

spoon shaped sediment deposits formed due to streams

A

Drumlin

149
Q

long sinuous deposition

A

Esker

150
Q

small depression and cavity formed in bedrock due to glacier movement

A

Kettle

151
Q

Half Bowled shaped valley formed by glacial erosion

A

Cirques

152
Q

Sharp long narrow ridges at mountain tops formed by glacial erosion

A

Arête

153
Q

sharpest and elevated point of Arête

A

Horn

154
Q

Poorly sorted and unstratified deposits

Striations

Angular sediments with unspecific

origins

Oxidising environment with few fossils

Stroma

Stromatolites (fossils)

A

Diagnostic criteria

155
Q

When river\stream enters still\standing water body, sediments are deposited in triangle shape

A

Delta

156
Q

landward portion

Sand size particles, distributaries

A

Delta Plain

157
Q

Delta Front:

Slightly grades into ocean, silt (sand and clay)

A

Delta Front

158
Q

Submerged into ocean, majority clay(silt and sand also)

A

Pro-Delta

159
Q

The shape of a delta is influenced by

A

sediment input, wave energy, and tidal energy

160
Q

occur in micro tidal settings with limited wave energy,

river contribution > ocean

all three parts of delta developed

controlled by the water density difference between the inflowing river water and the standing water on the basin

A

River-dominated deltas

161
Q

Deltas which undergo strong tidal interaction

ocean contribution > river

resembles bird’s feet

High tides and flood tides confine sediment on the delta plain and low tides carry sediment seaward.

Sediment supply is over powered by strong tidal currents so the delta tends to be very small

A

Tide-dominated deltas

162
Q

An open ocean basin accepts more water input so potential for greater wave energy, making wave- dominated deltas

High wave interference causes conflicted or deflected river mouths.

Less influence from fluvial sources

Breaking waves cause immediate mixing of fresh and salt water. Typically, the fresh water flow velocity decelerates rapidly.

A

Wave-dominated deltas

163
Q

► Majority sand size particles - sandstone

► Cross-beddings, ripple marks, laminations

► Yellowish-brownish colour

► Best reservoir

► Particle size decreases towards ocean

► Forams, Brachiopods, Pelecopods, leaves, Gastropods (fresh + marine water)

A

Diagnostic Criteria

164
Q

An partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea

Less saline than lagoon due to fresh water

Inflows of sea and fresh water provide nutrients, so it is more productive

A

Estuary

165
Q

_______ is a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of water by barrier islands or reefs

little or no fresh water inflow, and little or no tidal flow
More saline

A

Lagoon

166
Q

► Mostly Evaporates

►Thin beds of carbonates

► Salt pseudo-morphs

A

Diagnostic Criteria

167
Q

Regions near the mouths of rivers are usually clastic dominated because the critters that secrete CaCO3 tend to have trouble living in muddy water

A

Shallow marine clastic

168
Q

Regions with clear water shallow enough to be penetrated by sunlight are often dominated by the skeletons of marine organisms

A

Carbonate shelf

169
Q

Dominated by the deposition of submarine landslides

A

Continental slope

170
Q

Very thin sediments formed by the slow accumulation of skeletons (Planktons ) and clasts (clay) dropped into the ocean by wind

A

Deep Marine

Geology (1 decks)

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