midterm Flashcards

1
Q
  • What are the three main atmospheric elements?
A

o Nitrogen (78%)
o Oxygen (20.9%)
o Argon (0.93%)

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2
Q
  • Do nitrogen levels vary a lot in the environment?
A

o No, nitrogen levels remain consistent in the environment

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3
Q
  • What is happening to the concentration of nitrogen in the atmosphere because of human activity?
A

o Nitrogen concentrations are increasing

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4
Q
  • What is the role of nitrogen in the environment?
A

o Limited direct role but serves as a precursor molecule of nitrate which is used by plants to synthesize molecules essential to life

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5
Q
  • Why is having too much nitrogen in the atmosphere bad?
A

o Too much nitrogen results in algal blooms which suffocates the water

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6
Q
  • Why is oxygen important?
A

o Vital to almost all life
o Precursor for O3 which absorbs high energy UV light

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7
Q
  • What is argon?
A

o An inert gas

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8
Q
  • What are the trace gases that make up the rest of the atmosphere composition?
A

o Carbon dioxide
o Water vapor

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9
Q
  • What is the source of carbon from which all life is based?
A

o Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

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10
Q
  • What chemical compound is the basis for the Global Warming Potential (GWP)?
A

o Carbon dioxide

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11
Q
  • What is the Global Warming Potential (GWP)?
A

o The potential of any chemical to add to the global warming problem

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12
Q
  • What does it mean if methane has a GWP of 28?
A

o 1 molecule of methane contributes as much as 28 molecules of carbon dioxide

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13
Q
  • What compound is the most important greenhouse gas?
A

o Carbon dioxide

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14
Q
  • Why is carbon dioxide the most important greenhouse gas?
A

o Carbon dioxide accounts for the greatest portion of warming by anthropogenic activities

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15
Q
  • T/F. Carbon dioxide levels are steady in the environment?
A

o False, carbon dioxide levels are increasing

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16
Q
  • When did carbon dioxide levels begin to rise?
A

o 1870, the industrial revolution

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17
Q
  • Why do we have a huge increase in carbon dioxide levels beginning in 1960?
A

o The development of cars becoming cheaper

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18
Q
  • What is the most variable atmospheric component?
A

o Water

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19
Q
  • What is vapor pressure?
A

o The partial pressure of water vapor
o Humidity

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20
Q
  • What are the two types of humidity?
A

o Absolute
o Relative

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21
Q
  • As temperature increases, what happens to the ability of air to hold water?
A

o Air can hold more water at higher temps

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22
Q

What happens to relative humidity as the temperature increases

A

o Relative humidity decreases as temperatures increase
o Since air can hold more water at higher temperatures

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23
Q
  • What are the components of the Psychrometric chart pictured on the right?
A

o Dry bulb
o Wet bulb
o Specific humidity
o Dew point
o Relative humidity
o Saturation line
o Humidity ratio

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24
Q
  • How do you get the dry bulb temperature?
A

o Hang a thermometer

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25
* Where is the wet bulb temperature on the psychrometric chart?
o The top curved line
26
* How do you get the wet bulb temperature?
o They take a thermometer and cover it with a wet cloth and as the water evaporates it cools off
27
* What is the wet bulb temperature in comparison to the dry bulb temperature?
o Wet bulb temperature is always less than the dry bulb temperature
28
* Where is the specific humidity on the psychrometric chart?
o Right side o Shows the humidity ratio in pounds of water per pounds of air
29
* What is grains of water?
o Specific humidity o How many grains of water you have in the pound of air
30
* What is dew point?
o 100% humidity
31
* Where is the dew point depicted on the psychrometric chart?
o Same line as wet bulb
32
* Where is relative humidity depicted on the psychrometric chart?
o The curved line
33
* At 100% relative humidity, what is the the relative humidity similar to?
o The wet bulb line
34
* If you have a dry bulb temperature of 95 and a wet bulb temperature of 78, what is the relative humidity?
o The curve line at the intersection o Look at the yellow dot o 47%
35
* What is the humidity ratio?
o From the yellow line, move directly ro the right to get 0.017
36
* What is the specific humidity?
o 0.017 x 7,000 = 119
37
* What is the dew point?
o Go straight across to the elft from the yellow dot o 72 degrees F
38
* What is the maximum amount of water that can be held at this point?
o We want the maximum amount of water that can be held at this 78 wet bulb o From the tip of the left blue line at the 78 wet bulb point, go directly to the right to get 0.022
39
* If our dry bulb temp is 85 and the wet bulb temp is 73, what is the relative humidity? Humidity ratio? Specific humidity? Dew point? Maximum water held at 100% relative humidity?
o Relative humidity: 55% o Humidity ratio: 0.013 o Specific humidity: 0.013 x 7,000 = 91 o Dew point: 65 o Maximum water held: 0.017 x 7,000 = 119
40
* What comprises the solar radiation the earth receives?
o Infrared: 49% o Visible light: 42% o UV radiation: 8%
41
* What does the amount of solar radiation received depend on?
o The angle of inclination of earth
42
* Does the solar radiation at the poles vary?
o The poles get the same amount of radiation all the time
43
* What do the differences in radiation cause?
o Differences in thermal energy
44
* What pressure results from warm air?
o High pressure
45
* What pressure results in storms?
o Low pressure
46
* In what air pressure is air more unstable?
o Low pressure
47
* What causes climates?
o The movement of pressure from high to low o Warm currents move poleward o Cold currents move towards the equator
48
* What are the vertical temperature gradients?
o Troposphere o Tropopause o Stratosphere o Mesosphere o Thermosphere o Ionosphere
49
* What are the characteristics of the troposphere?
o Unstable, leads to bad weather o In the troposphere, the temperature decreases with increasing altitude
50
* What are the characteristics of the tropopause?
o Isothermic: the temperature pauses o Stable
51
* What are the characteristics of the stratosphere?
o Temperature increases with altitude due to UV absorption by ozone o Relatively stable
52
* What are the characteristics of the Mesosphere?
o Temperature deceases with altitude o Rapid vertical mixing as a result of cold temperature
53
* Which sphere has the coldest temperatures?
o Stratosphere
54
* What are the characteristics of the thermosphere?
o High temperatures due to absorption of short wavelength radiation
55
* What is the characteristics of the ionosphere?
o Layer of atmosphere with ionic version of oxygen and nitrogen molecules
56
* What happens to atmospheric pressure as the temperature increases?
o Atmospheric pressure increases due to the kinetic energy of the molecules
57
* What is standard atmosphere?
o 760 mm Hg o 1.01325 x 105 Pa
58
* What kind of weather does high pressure lead to?
o Warmer, dry weather
59
* What kind of weather does low pressure lead to?
o Colder, more unstable weather
60
* What is air pollution?
o The introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment
61
* What is natural air pollution?
o Pollution that occurs as a result of natural processes like volcanic activity, fires, decomposition, and ocean spray
62
* T/F. Natural pollution is the greatest pollutant.
o True, but the effect as a pollutant is minimal
63
* What are some causes of anthropogenic air pollution?
o Deforestation o Industrial revolution
64
* What is haze?
o Particles suspended in air, reducing visibility by scattering light
65
* What is fog?
o Water droplets suspended in the atmosphere in the vicinity of the earth’s surface that affect visibility
66
* What is smog?
o Fog or haze combined with smoke and other atmospheric pollutants
67
* What is a primary pollutant?
o Pollutants from transportation, industry, waste disposal, etc.
68
* What are the two types of primary pollutants?
o Mobile o Stationary
69
* What are mobile pollutants?
o Pollutants that move such as automobiles, train, and planes
70
* What are stationary pollutants?
o Pollutants that do not move such as power plants and industrial factories
71
* What are the two types of sources for pollutants?
o Point source o Area source
72
* To limit air pollution, what did the CAA require?
o The development of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
73
* What is the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS)?
o The standard that sets limits on 6 “criteria” air pollutants
74
* What are the 6 criteria air pollutants se by NAAQS?
o CO o NO2 o Pb o O3 o PM10 o PM2.5 o VOC
75
* Even though we are significantly reducing emissions, why do we still see an increase in current emissions?
o Increase in population o Increase in power use o Increase in cars on the road
76
* What are the anthropogenic sources of CO2¬?
o Fossil fuel use o Land conversion
77
* What is land conversion?
o The shift of vegetation into the ground
78
* What are some examples of CO2 sinks?
o Deep sea o Ocean sediment o Fossil fuel reserves
79
* Why do sinks contribute to the pollution problem?
o When the sinks are disturbed, CO2 is brought into the atmosphere
80
* Where do emissions of carbon monoxide come from?
o Biomass burning o Combustion
81
* What type of combustion results carbon monoxide release into the atmosphere?
o Incomplete combustion
82
* How does incomplete combustion result in carbon monoxide release into the environment?
o During combustion, CO reacts with oxygen to produce CO2 o If there is insufficient O2, then there is excess CO
83
* Which has higher levels of carbon monoxide ambient concentrations or background levels in urban areas due to vehicle usage?
o Ambient concentrations
84
* How do carbon monoxide sinks occur?
o Uptake by soil o Conversion to O3 in the troposphere
85
* How does methane emission occur?
o Digestion of cellulose by livestock o Decomposition of organic material o Coal o Refineries
86
* How do methane sinks occur?
o Methane conversion to water and a methyl group when there is a reaction with a hydroxyl group
87
* What happens if there is too much carbon monoxide in the presence of methane?
o Carbon monoxide also uses hydroxyl groups that will reduce the ability for methane to react with it, increasing methane concentrations
88
* How are sulfur compounds emitted into the environment?
o Volcanoes o Combustion of fuel and biomass o Sulfur-containing metal ores
89
* Why has sulfur concentrations decreased over the years?
o Control technologies on industries o Reduction of coal use
90
* What are scrubbers?
o Attached to industrial buildings o This is a limestone and water mixture that combines with sulfur to produce Gypsums which can then be recycled
91
* Why can nitrogen be bad in the atmosphere if it is naturally found in high concentrations?
o The precursor molecules leads to various NOX which can cause ozone depletion, global warming, and oxidation of biogenic VOCs like isoprene
92
* What is aerodynamic equivalent diameter (AED)?
o This is how we get the nomenclature for PM o A method of standardization since all particles come in different shapes and sizes o AED is based on the diameter of a spherical particle with a density of 1 g/cm3 o Particles with an AED of PM2.5, regardless of actual shape will settle at the same velocity as a spherical particles with 2.5 diameter
93
* What are the two classes that atmospheric particles can be divided in?
o Coarse particles o Fine particles
94
* How are coarse particles generated?
o Mechanical means such as jack hammering and erosion
95
* What kind of compounds tend to make up ultrafine particles?
o Sulfate and organic compounds
96
* What is Aitken range?
o Produced by combustion, coagulation, and condensation of gas-phase particulates
97
* What is dispersion?
o Pollutants mixing with air resulting in lower ground-level concentrations (dilution)
98
* What is transport?
o Process by which air motions carry pollution from one region to another
99
* What is deposition?
o Transfer of gas and particulate-phase substances to vegetation, water, and other surfaces (removal)
100
* When pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere from a point or area source, what happens?
o Pollutents are dispersed (diluted) by air moving horizontally and vertically o Transported from one location to another
101
* Why is transport important?
o Transport enhances dilution and can allow mixing of various pollutants from otherwise distant sources
102
* Where does dispersion and transport occur?
o Planetary boundary layer (PBL)
103
* What are the four scales of motion?
o Microscale o Mesoscale o Synoptic scale o Global scale
104
* What is the microscale?
o Local, no more than 24 hs o Tornados, rainbos, soil temperature, tracking of air pollution o What you see
105
* What is the mesoscale?
o A few days o Includes thunderstorms, convective processes
106
* What is synoptic scale?
o Many days o Thousands of kilometers o Hurricanes, fronts, high and low pressure systems
107
* What is the global scale?
o Weeks to months o Large areas of the globe o Polar jet streams, trade winds, El Nino
108
* What is the mixing of the planetary boundary layer?
o The PBL is relatively well-mixed on a large scale
109
* What is the mixing on the local (microscale)?
o Not great mixing o Air emissions can lead to harmful health conditions based on prevailing atmospheric conditions
110
* What conditions affect mixing?
o Wind o Turbulence o Stability o Inversions
111
* What is wind speed affected by?
o Temperature and surface roughness
112
* What is the wind surrounding urban areas?
o Urban areas tend to have lower velocity winds than suburban and rural due to more surface roughness
113
* Why do we like large wind velocities?
o Greater wind velocities allow for more air volume to aid in dispersing of contaminants
114
* What is the rule of thumb for wind and dilution?
o Dilution is inversely proportional to wind speed o If wind speed doubles, concentration of pollutants is cut in half
115
* What is turbulence?
o Eddies that are produced by mechanical or thermal forces
116
* What is turbulence on the micro scale?
o Air movement over shorter time scales
117
* What is turbulence on the meso scale?
o Air movement by wind
118
* What causes mechanical turbulence?
o Turbulence caused by wind moving around structures and vegetation
119
* What causes thermal turbulence?
o Heating and cooling of air near the surface
120
* When does turbulence tend to occur?
o Both forms of turbulence occurs during daylight
121
* How does turbulence affect dispersion?
o Turbulence enhances dispersion and decreases concentration of pollutants
122
* How does stability affect dispersion?
o As stability increases, dispersion decreases
123
* What is lapse rate?
o The rate of temperature change with height
124
* What is the tropospheric lapse rate?
o -6.5 C/km
125
* What is adiabatic lapse rate?
o Theoretical change of temperature with height when no heat energy is transferred to air o -10 C/km
126
* What are the characteristics of a near adiabatic lapse rate?
o Small decrease in temp with height o Air cools as it expands but still close to adiabatic lapse rate o Found in cloudy or windy conditions o Dispersion is relatively good
127
* What are the characteristics of a super adiabatic lapse rate?
o Greater decrease in temp with height than A o Parcel of air will rise rapidly o Very unstable, strong vertical air motion o Found on clear days with light winds o Dispersion is excellent
128
* What are the characteristics of an isothermal layer?
o Temperature does not change with heigh o Parcel of air rises slowly o Stable atmosphere o Moderate dispersion
129
* What are the characteristics of an inversion layer?
o Temperature increases with heigh o Inverted temperature changes o Very stable atmosphere with no vertical air motion o Found on clear nights with light winds o Dispersion is poor
130
What happens during an inversion?
o When lapse rates are positive o Temperature increases with height
131
* What are the four types of inversions?
o Frontal o Advective o Radiational o Subsidence
132
* What is a frontal inversion?
o Warm front flows over cold front o Limited effect on air quality
133
* What is an advective inversion?
o Refers to horizontal transfer o Warm air flows over cold surface o Advective is day to day inversion
134
* What causes radiational inversions?
o Colling of the ground
135
* When do radiational inversions form?
o On clear nights
136
* When do radiational inversion break up?
o As the sun starts to warm up the ground and air
137
* T/F. Radiational inversions on flat terrain greatly impact the air quality.
o False, it has limited impact
138
* What type of inversion has the greatest impact on river valleys?
o Radiational inversions o More important in valleys than in flat terrain
139
* What parts of a stack impact air quality?
o Height of stack
140
* What causes subsidence inversion?
o Subsidence of air from widespread high pressure system
141
* Where is subsidence inversion common?
o Northern regions and subtropical areas
142
* When do subsidence inversions affect air quality?
o When close to the ground
143
* What do point source plumes release?
o A combination of gas-vapor particulates
144
* Which part of the plum will settle close to the source?
o Particulates >20 micrometers
145
* Which particulates will disperse similarly to gases and vapors from a plume?
o AED<1
146
* How do pollutants move?
o From high concentrations to low concentrations and dispersion may occur by diffusion
147
* What direction do plumes spread?
o Vertically and horizontally
148
* What part of the stack is dispersion affected by?
o Physical height o Plume rise
149
* What is plume rise?
o The distance from the top of the stack to the center of the plume (horizontal plume)
150
* What is effective stack height?
o Height from the base of the stack to the center of the plume
151
* What happens when you increase stack height?
o Dispersion increases
152
* How do high winds affect stack height?
o High winds can decrease the effective stack height by decreasing plume rise, and the distance to where the contaminant may be brought to the ground
153
* What are the three major types of plumes?
o Coning o Fanning o Looping
154
* When does a coning plume form?
o Lapse rates are neutral to isothermal o Cloudy or windy days, or at night o Slightly unstable air
155
* When do fanning plumes form?
o Stable conditions o Little vertical movement, but can have great horizontal movement
156
* When do looping plumes form?
o Lapse rate is superadiabatic o Calm winds o Looping motion comes from rise and fall of air currents
157
* What is dry deposition?
o Direct transfer of substances to water, vegetation
158
What are the 3 methods of dry deposition?
o Impaction o Sedimentation o Uptake by plants
159
* What affects deposition?
o Deposition velocity
160
* What increases deposition velocity?
o High for coarse particles and nitric acid
161
* What is wet deposition?
o Transfer to earth via aqueous form (rain, snow, dew)
162
* What do sinks do to pollutants?
o They remove them
163
* Sinks do not perfectly remove pollutants from the environment, what can occur if pollutants remain in the environment?
o Long and short term changes to the environment
164
* What are the long and short-term changes of chemicals composition in the environment dependent on?
o Concentration of contaminants o Half-lives of pollutants o Dispersion o Transport
165
* What scale are the long and short-term changes?
o Local o Regional o Global
166
* What is the most recognizable effect of air pollution?
o Visibility reduction
167
* What are natural sources of visibility reduction?
o Volcanic eruptions o Haze
168
* What are anthropogenic reductions in visibility?
o Smog o Ozone o Particulate formation
169
* What causes reduction in visibility?
o Absorption and scattering of light by particulates and gases
170
* What part of the EM spectrum can we see?
o 400-700 µm portion
171
* Why do we see white colors?
o All the colors are reflected off a substance
172
* Why do we see black colors?
o All the colors are absorbed o All the wavelengths are absorbed
173
* Why do we see one color?
o All the other colors have been absorbed and only the one color is being reflected back to us
174
* What is the brightest object perceived as?
o White because it reflects the most light o All other colors are perceived in comparison
175
* If you are in a room and shine only a red light onto blue pants, what color will the pants be?
o Black
176
* When does Rayleigh scattering occur?
o When light waves interact with atmospheric particles that are smaller in size than the wavelength of the light
177
* How does Rayleigh scattering occur?
o As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, it scatters off objects such as air molecules, dust, gases and vapors, and other particulate matter o Light will then scatter in all direction o The light will bounce of small particles  Smaller than the wavelength (400-700 nm range)
178
* Why do we mostly see a blue sky?
o Blue and violet have the shortest wavelength and most particles are smaller than 400 µm o Due to the small size of the atmospheric matter, particles will tend to scatter the wavelengths of light that are closer in size o Well blue is at the bottom of the light spectrum at 400 µm o Because blue light is preferentially scattered, we perceive the sky as blue
179
* What happens when you look at an area with different molecules in the atmosphere or where that molecules are larger in size like a volcanic eruption?
o The particles tend to be large, closer to the 700 µm range o Because light scatters at a wavelength closer to particle size, larger particles will scatter more red and orange light due to the higher wavelength
180
* What happens to Reyleigh scattering as the atmospheric density decreases?
o Reyleigh scattering decreases o Only the smallest wavelengths tend to be scattered because there’s fewer molecules
181
* How does altitude effect Reyleigh scattering?
o Although the horizon at sea level will look blue it may seem lighter because the light has to pass through more of the atmosphere and is scattered more  As the sun gets to sea level, it has to travel through the atmosphere  There is more small particulate matter at the top to scatter
182
* What wavelengths are scattered at high altitude?
o Only the smallest wavelength because higher altitude have smaller particles
183
* Why is space black?
o Space has no air and particles to scatter light
184
* What makes the blue ridge mountains blue?
o The large number of conifers releasing isoprene, a natural hydrocarbon and pollutant o Not all mountains look like this because not all mountains have these trees
185
* T/F. Rayleigh scattering only comes from artificial pollutants.
o False, the blue ridge mountains are an example of natural scattering
186
* What has caused the uptick in pollution?
o Human activity
187
* What is plume blight?
o The stuff that come from the plume
188
* What kind of human activity has resulted in increased pollution and decreased visibility?
o Smog o Plume blight o Haze
189
* What caused an increase in pollution in pristine areas over the arctic circle and southeast Asia?
o Pollution that has transported
190
* How does smog affect visibility?
o It reduces it
191
* What does the air quality index measure?
o Ground level ozone o Particulate matter pollution o Carbon monoxide o Sulfur dioxide o Nitrogen dioxide
192
* What warning does the AQI provide?
o The air quality index is divided into 6 categories that is used to warn populations of air pollution levels and possible health issues that can result
193
* What is arctic haze?
o A form of air pollution that is found in pristine areas
194
* What causes the arctic haze?
o Anthropogenic pollution, specifically the burning of coal and petroleum products (sulfur and carbon, some metals) o Due to limited removal process (snow and rainfall) the pollutants can remain in the atmosphere for a longer time period
195
* When is the arctic haze found?
o In the spring months due to the limited removal process o No rain or snow in the atmosphere so the pollutants stick around longer
196
* What is arctic haze an example of?
o An atmospheric effect from pollution in an area where you would not expect to see it
197
* What is turbidity?
o A measurement of the vertical extinction of light scattering o As the sun moves, it has a lot of space to travel with the air getting denser
198
* How does turbidity affect sunlight that reaches the ground?
o Light scattering gets extinguished so this leads to decreased sunlight at ground level
199
* What causes turbidity in the troposphere?
o Human activities and aerosol pollution
200
* What leads to turbidity in the stratosphere?
o Natural processes such as volcanic activity
201
* How does turbidity in the stratosphere affect global temperatures?
o Turbidity in the stratosphere can decrease global temperatures
202
* What is a heat island?
o An urban area which has elevated temperatures when compared to surrounding areas
203
* What causes heat islands to form?
o Decreased air movement from increased surface roughness of buildings o Solar energy absorption o Heat storage o Energy utilizing processes
204
* How do heat islands effect the weather?
o Less fog and snow o Lower relative humidity o Fewer nocturnal inversions o More rain downwind
205
* What is the scientific name for acid rain?
o Acid deposition
206
* Why is acid deposition used instead of acid rain?
o Because the phenomenon includes wet and dry deposition, acid fog, clouds and dew o This name encompasses all acidic deposition
207
* Why is rain acidic with a pH of 5.65 if water has a pH of 7?
o The CO2 will equilibrate with water and become more acidic
208
* In the northern US, what has caused the acidic deposition?
o Sulfur and nitric acid from power plants, boilers, smelters, and cars
209
* Over the past years, sulfur emissions have not increased but are the sulfer in the air has, why?
o Cars producing NOx o This precursor molecule causes photochemical changes which become H2SO4 and HNO3 o This is why we still have to worry about NOx
210
* What has caused acidic deposition in the western US?
o Nitric acid from cars
211
* How has acidic deposition affected the lakes?
o Acidic deposition has led to chronic acidification of lakes and streams
212
* What element is a major contributor of aquatic acidification?
o Sulfur from acidic deposition
213
* Where is aquatic identification found?
o Northeast and Florida
214
* What happens to the pH of an aquatic acidification area as distance from the source to receiving water increases?
o Neutralization will increase o The water will move through the environment and rock and become less acidic
215
* How does acidification affect the soil?
o By leaching base cations and toxic metals
216
* What are the anthropogenic sources of nitrogen?
o NOx from fossil combustion o NH3 from fertilizers and animals
217
* Where are nitrate depositions commonly found?
o Northeastern and mid-Atlantic states
218
* Where are ammonia depositions found?
o Farming states
219
* How do human emissions of NOx compare to natural emissions?
o Human NOx emissions are 3 times higher than natural emissions
220
* How does nitrogen affect the ecological environment?
o Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient o Algal blooms will result from too much nitrogen increasing growth and suffocating everything else
221
* Why is Mercury a major public health concern?
o Bioaccumulation o Mercury is bioaccumulated and can be thousands of times greater in fish and birds in their prey
222
* Where is mercury naturally found?
o Rocks and minerals
223
* What human activity has increased mercury deposition?
o Combustion of coal, medical, and hazardous waste o Thermometer and barometers o Manufacturing process (electrical equipment, chlorine)
224
* T/F. Elemental mercury does not travel far from the source.
o False, elemental mercury is very mobile and can travel great distances
225
* How soluble is ionic mercury?
o Very soluble
226
* What is ionic mercury transformed to by microorganisms that make it toxic?
o Methyl mercury
227
* Why are pesticides, PCBs, dioxins, and furans concerning in the environment?
o These compounds are highly persistent in the environment with half live ranging from 10 to 20 years o Very mobile due to high vitalization o Bioaccumulate in the food chain
228
* What are the health concerns of pesticides, PCBs, dioxins, and furans?
o Neurotoxins, carcinogens, endocrine disruptors o Dioxin is a teratogen
229
* Are PCBs found in the US?
o PCB are banned in the US
230
* How were PCBs, dioxins, and furans released into the environment?
o PCBs and pesticides were manufactured internationally o Dioxin and furans are by products
231
* Why what the super sonic transport and nuclear testing questioned?
o Emission of NO molecules destroy O3
232
* Where is the reaction of NO of most concern?
o In the stratosphere o In the troposphere, NO does not make it to the stratosphere due to the short half-life
233
* Why was there a global phase out of CFCs?
o Scientist noticed it resulted in an increase in the ozone hole
234
* Why is the ozone hole over antarctica?
o The polar vortex prevents Antarctic air from mixing with Earth’s atmosphere o The extreme cold causes frozen clouds which form an electrostatic attraction with CFC and other molecules
235
* What is directly correlated with the size of the ozone hole?
o Strength of the polar vortex
236
* What is the primary source of CFCs?
o They are anthropogenic
237
* What is the cycle of ozone in the stratosphere?
o Ozone is constantly being created and destroyed resulting in a net zero reaction
238
* T/F. The ozone layer is even around the planet.
o False, it varies spatially and temporally over the planet
239
* If more ozone is produced in the tropics, why are ozone levels higher in the poles?
o Transport
240
* What signifies the production and destruction of ozone?
o The Chapman cycle?
241
* What is the Chapman cycle?
o A photon of light initially reacts with oxygen to produce 2 free radical oxygens o The free radical can react with molecular oxygen to produce ozone o Step 3 is the sink. Ozone is being naturally destroyed
242
* What is the source of ozone?
o When a free radical oxygen reacts with oxygen to create ozone
243
* What is the sink of ozone?
o When a photon reacts with ozone to eliminate ozone
244
* Where are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) found?
o Refrigerants o Air conditioners o Aerosol sprays o Paints o Chemical solvents
245
* Why are CFCs extremely dangerous?
o Ther are extremely stable and can stick around long enough to be transported to the stratosphere o They do not get broken down in the troposphere
246
* What is the CFC ozone destroying cycle?
o Chlorine is a catalyst that destroys ozone molecules o One chlorine can destroy thousands of molecules o CFCs act as a catalyst
247
* What does nitrogen do in the stratosphere?
o Act a catalyst
248
* What does nitrogen do in the troposphere?
o Half life is too short to be transported to the stratosphere
249
* What is expected as a result of the reduction in ozone depleting substances emissions?
o The ozone layer is expected to almost completely recover by the middle of the century o The length of time is due to the natural sink processes for current ODS in the stratosphere  Natural sink process takes a very long time
250
* What does global warming refer to?
o Average global temperatures
251
* Why are we in global warming?
o Average global temperatures have increased by 1.1 degrees C since pre industrial era
252
* What does climate change refer to?
o The changes in global weather patterns leading to an increase in length of hurricane season, more intense fires, tornadic actions, loss of winter o We are now dealing with weather extremes
253
* What is the difference between global warming and climate change?
o Global warming is the gradual increase of earth’s surface temperature o Climate change is the long-term change in global weather patterns
254
* T/F. Global temperatures have remained steady over the last 2,000 years.
o False, global temperature have risen faster over the last 50 years than anytime in the last 2000 years
255
* What was the hottest month and year ever recorded?
o 2023 was the hottest year o August 2023 was the hottest month ever
256
* When have the 10 warmest years on record occurred?
o Between 2014 to 2023
257
* What is the 2 degree threshold?
o It is a general scientific consensus that reaching a 2 degree Celsius rise in temperature will lead to irreversible changes to our atmosphere and planet and is considered a critical threshold
258
* What has the 2 degree threshold been lowered to?
o 1.5 degrees C
259
* What is radiative forcing?
o The change in the net, downward minus upward, radiative flux (expressed in W/m2) due to a change in an external driver of climate change
260
* What does positive forcing do to the earth?
o Heats it
261
* What does negative forcing do to the earth?
o Cool it o More outgoing than incoming
262
* What are contributors to radiative forcing?
o Greenhouse gasses o Aerosols o Sulfor dioxide o Organic carbon o Black carbon
263
* What do aerosols cause?
o Cooling
264
* What is radiative effectiveness similar to?
o Global warming potential o Carbon dioxide is 1 and everything else is compared to it o The numbers are pretty close to each other
265
* What are the effects of global warming?
o Economic collapse o Marshall island vanishing o Food and water security will lead to more conflict o Long periods of extreme heat  Nights are not cooling off o Vector borne illness ranges will shift northward as habitats change
266
* What is episodic air pollution?
o These are characterized by short-term increases in air pollution that are significantly greater than normal daily levels
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* What can the episodic air pollution lead to?
o Scientific documentation has provided solid evidence that these episodes can lead to illness, both acute and chronic, even death
268
* When can interaction effects occur?
o During transportation and deposition of pollutants, there is opportunity for the mixture of gases and particulates to interact and change the physiological effects of each other
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* What are the types of interaction effects?
o Additive o Antagonistic o Synergistic
270
* What are additive effects?
o Doubling the effect of the pollutant
271
* What are antagonistic effects?
o Decrease in the effect in the presence of a second chemical
272
* What are synergistic effects?
o Increase in the effect in the presence of another chemical that is greater than the sum o This can be instances such as making the effect go faster
273
* T/F. Pollutants affects every part of the body.
o False, pollutants are primarily organized to have impacts on specific organs
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* What are the two types of effects pollutants can have on the body?
o Direct o Indirect
275
* What are some examples of direct effects of pollutants on the body?
o Particles impacting surface of the eye and causing irritation, redness, etc.
276
* What are some examples of indirect effects of pollutants on the body?
o Pollutants that are initially inhaled but then are pulled into the bloodstream and deposited in other organ systems
277
* Why do we care about PM 2.5?
o Particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 can penetrate all three respiratory systems (inhalable, respirable, and thoracic) o PM2.5 has a high deposition fraction in the pulmonary region
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* What are the three regions of the respiratory system?
o Nasopharyngeal region o Tracheobronchial region o Pulmonary region
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* What happens as size of the particle increases?
o The area where the particle will have its effect will be different
280
* Why do we care about PM10?
o Deposition of PM7.5 mainly occurs the greatest in the upper region of the lung and the tracheobronchial region
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* What is the economic cost of air pollution?
o $4.6 trillion globally
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* Why do we care about air pollution?
o Air pollution is a major threat to human health with major disparities related to socioeconomic indicators o PM2.5 or less has been shown to have the strongest correlation (when compared to other pollutants such as the NQAAS)
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* How many deaths due to stroke, lung cancer, and heart disease, are due to air pollution?
o 1/3 of deaths
284
* What are the health risks associated with breathing dirty air?
o Respiratory infections o Cardiovascular disease o Stroke o Chronic lung disease o Lung cancer
285
* What are the different NAAQS (criteria air pollutants)?
o Carbon monoxide o Lead o Nitrogen dioxide o Ozone o PM2.5 o Particle pollution o PM10 o Sulfur Dioxide
286
* Why are NAAQS created?
o They are recommendation designed to protect human health o Due to clean air act o Over time it has become more strict
287
* What has been the trend in pollution because of these regulations?
o Air quality has greatly gotten better o Lead is the best example o Every pollutant has gone down
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* What is PM2.5?
o The atmospheric particulate matter (PM) that have an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers, which is about 3% the diameter of a human hair
289
* What is the WHO annual mean standard for PM2.5?
o 10 micrograms/m3
290
* What is the WHO 24 hour mean standard for PM2.5?
o 25 micrograms/m3
291
* What is the US annual and 24 hr mean for PM 2.5?
o Annual: 12 micrograms/m3 o 24 hour: 35 micrograms/m3 o But the US has gone down below the national standard (not every state because this is average)
292
* Why do we care about the aerodynamic diameter?
o Aerodynamic diameter controls where the particle settles in the body
293
* T/F. Particles are perfectly round.
o False, which is why we use aerodynamic diameter
294
* What happens to compact particles?
o They settle better
295
* What happens to particles that are spread out? Molecularly
o They settle higher
296
* PM pollution contributes to how much global risk factors for disease?
o 4 out of the 10 global risk factors
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* Where can PM particles go?
o Every region of the body including lungs, heart, kidney, brain, with the highest exposure route from air (water and food are about equal) o The smaller the particle, the farther it does
298
* What does deposition efficiency depend on?
o Particle size
299
* Particulate air pollution can cut global life expectancy by how many years?
2
300
* What are the sources of ambient particulate matter?
o Natural sources o Human activity o Vehicles o Household wood, coal burning o Power plants and industry
301
* What is the greatest human health risk?
o Air pollution surpassing smoking o You lose 1.8 years per person due to air pollution  This is the average and may change
302
* By reducing air pollution, what burden can countries reduce?
o Stroke o Heart disease o Lung cancer o Acute respiratory disease o Asthma
303
* What percent of the world population lives in places where WHO air quality guidelines are not met?
o Over 90%
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* Ambient/outdoor air pollution is estimated to cause how many premature deaths worldwide?
o 4.2 million o 91% occurred in low- middle- income countries
305
* Where do the greatest deaths from air pollution occur?
o South-east Asia o Western Pacific regions o Air pollution is disproportionately affecting people in Asia
305
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* How is indoor air pollution a problem?
o Indoor smoke is a health risk for 3 billion people who cook and heat their homes with biomass, kerosene fuels, and coal
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* Loss of life due to air pollution is dependent on what?
o Where you live
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* What is the global ranking of air pollution as a risk factor for death?
o Number 5
309
* What are the trends in air pollution based on sociodemographic index?
o Low income are exposed to the highest levels of PM2.5 (huge variance depending on SDI index) o Everyone breathes bad ozone
310
* What are short term effects?
o Effects that are temporary or immediate effects and often reversible when exposure ends
311
* What can long-term exposures to pollutants result in?
o Aggravated health problems
312
* What population is susceptible to air pollution?
o Old people o Children o People with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease o Asthma o People without a strong immune system o Individuals living in urban area o Women in developing countries
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* Why are urban areas more susceptible to the effects of air pollution?
o Overpopulation and uncontrolled urbanization along with the development of industrialization
314
* In developing countries, why are women susceptible to air pollution?
o The women of the household seem to carry the highest risk for disease development due to their longer duration exposure to the indoor air pollution
315
* What are the major factors that affect human health with air pollution?
o Nature of pollutants (pollutants have different effects) o Concentration of pollutants (low concentrations can be expelled more) o Duration of exposure (concentration and duration when multiplied become dose) o State of the health of the receptor (healthy people are less effected because they have good immunity) o Age group of the receptor (old people and children
316
* What is the air pollution pyramid?
o A framework commonly used to describe the spectrum of health impacts from exposure to air pollution o As severity of outcomes increase, the proportion of people affected decrease
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* What are the common air pollutants that affect human health?
o Carbon monoxide o Sulphur dioxide o Nitrogen oxide o Ozone o Particulate matter o PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) o Dioxins o VOCs (volatile organic compounds)
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* Why do we care about really small particles?
o They can travel to the brain
319
* Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?
o It is colorless, odorless, tasteless and is known as the silent killer o Reduces RBC carrying capacity of oxygen
320
* What can release carbon monoxide?
o Incomplete combustion of fuel from transportation sector o Energy production o Residential heating units o Industrial processes o On-road vehicles is the greatest source (why we want electric vehicles)
321
* Effects of CO depend on what?
o Concentration
322
* How is sulfur dioxide produced?
o Burning of material with a high sulfur content  Cola-fired power stations  Diesel vehicles  Oil refineries  Shipping
323
* What are the short term health effects of sulfur dioxide?
o Temporary breathing difficulty (bronchoconstriction) o Eye/nose/throat irritation o Mucus secretion
324
* What are the long term exposure of sulfur dioxide effects?
o Respiratory illness o Aggravates existing heart disease
325
* What caused the deaths of the great London Smoke?
o Sulfur dioxide
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* What are the sources of nitrogen oxide?
o Combustion of fuel at high temperature from mobile and stationary combustion sources  Car and truck exhausts  Coal-fired power stations  Industry
327
* What are the health effects from prolonged exposure of nitrogen oxide?
o Pulmonary fibrosis (lung thickens) o Emphysema (COPD) o Higher LRI in children
328
* What is ground-level ozone?
o Colorless highly irritating gas formed by photochemical reactions just above the earth’s surface
329
* T/F. Ozone is a primary pollutant.
o False, it is produced by precursors like NOX and VOCs (NOX or VOC driven) o No precursor, no ozone
330
* T/F. We want ozone in the troposphere.
o False, ozone is bad in the troposphere o We want ozone in the stratosphere
331
* What are the short term effects of ozone?
o Coughing, wheezing, irritation, headache, dizziness, fatigue
332
* What are the long-term effects of ozone?
o Respiratory disease, cardiovascular damage, harm to liver/spleen/blood, nervous system damage, cancer, birth defects, death
333
* Why is lead bad?
o Its widespread use caused extensive environmental contamination and health problems in many parts of the world o Children are particularly vulnerable to the neurotoxic effects
334
* What are the sources of lead?
o Burning of fuels with lead o Metal processing o Waste incinerators o Production of lead-acid batteries o Plumbing material and alloys
335
* What does particulate matter encompass?
o A mixture of solid, liquid or both particles suspended in the air
336
* What are the sources of particulate matter?
o Agricultural operations o Industrial processes o Combustion of wood and fossil fuels o Construction o Vehicular emission o Entrainment of road dust into the air
337
* Why do we care about fine particles?
o Fine particles can invade the deepest parts of the airways and more easily reach the bloodstream o They can have carcinogenic elements, we don’t know
338
* Order particles by size
o Ultrafine particles (0.0001 mm) o Inhalable particles (0.001 mm) o PM2.5 (0.0025 mm) o PM10 (0.01 mm)
339
* What are the sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)?
o Coal and tar sediments o Incomplete combustion of organic matter (forest fires) o Incineration of solid waste o Vehicular emissions and engines
340
* What are the short term effects of PAHs?
o Vomiting, nausea, difficulty moving, confusion, skin irritation, eye irritation
341
* What are the long-term effects of PAHs?
o Cataracts, reduced immunity, hemolysis, breathing problems, liver/kidney damage, pulmonary abnormalities, cancer
342
* Why are VOCs bad?
o VOCs such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene have been found to be associated with cancer in humans
343
* What are the sources of VOCs?
o Anthropogenic  Energy production, industry, solvent evaporation, waste treatment and disposal, agriculture o Biogenic  Plants with a smell, vegetation fire, soil
344
* Where do dioxins come from?
o Industrial processes and natural processes (forest fires and volcanic eruptions)
345
* What are the short term effects of dioxins?
o Dark spots and lesions on the skin
346
* What are the long-term effects of dioxins?
o Developmental problems o Impairment of the immune, endocrine, and nervous system o Reproductive infertility o Cancer
347
* What do the health impacts of air pollution depend on?
o Exposure and dose of air pollutants inhaled o Concentrations that are harmful are dependent on pollutant
348
* What areas are more susceptible to air pollution?
o Urban areas due to increased urbanization and industrialization
349
* What is the purpose of air monitoring?
o To assess trends in global concentrations of various air pollutants
350
* What are some examples of monitored pollutants?
o PM2.5 o PM10 o NOx o Sox o Pb
351
* What are the two types of ai monitoring assessments?
o Qualitative o quantitative
352
* What is the purpose of qualitative air monitoring assessments?
o To be used as an indicator of the presence of air pollutants o Examples include looking at trends or just looking at the visibility
353
* Why do we need quantitative assessments?
o To support regulatory requirements o This is what is used for research
354
* What is air monitoring used for?
o Long term trends o Human exposure o Epidemiological studies o Emission reduction programs o Effectiveness of programs o Determining new pollutants of interest
355
* What are the 7 NAAQS pollutants?
o CO o Lead o NO2 o O3 o PM2.5 o PM10 o SO2
356
* What effects does a primary standard look at?
o Health effects
357
* What effects does a secondary standard look at?
o Environmental effects
358
* What are the two primary contributors of ozone?
o NOx o VOCs
359
* Why are national air toxic trend sites developed?
o To monitor the hazardous air pollutants (HAPS) that are not part of NAAQS o This can also provide as an early warning for epi studies because these pollutants might become an NAAQS later down the road
360
* What are some examples of the hazardous air pollutants monitored by the 26 national air toxic trend sites?
o VOCs o Carbonyls o PM10 metals o PAHs
361
* Who sets air quality guidelines for the world to use?
o Worl health organization (WHO) o The world health organization and IQair analyze data from over 4000 contributors, including citizens, communities, governments and private sectors
362
* T/F. Females are more susceptible to deaths attributed to ambient air pollution than males.
o False, males exceed the total deaths
363
* Which emissions are vehicles a major source for?
o VOCs o CO o NOx
364
* Why are NOx and VOC emissions from vehicles bad for the environment?
o NOx and VOC are responsible for the production of ozone in the troposphere
365
* How much of the energy from fossil fuels do vehicles use?
o A third of the energy from fossil are used for vehicles
366
* T/F. The fuel efficiency of cars have decreased over the years resulting in an increase in CO2 emission.
o False, the opposite has occurred, even though human are moving away from more energy efficient sedans, cars have become more fuel efficient resulting in a decrease in carbon dioxide production
367
* What are the two main types of engines used in vehicles?
o Spark ignition internal combustion engine o Diesel combustion engine
368
* What kind of engine would you find in cars, light duty trucks, and motor cycles?
o Spark ignition internal combustion engine
369
* What kind of vehicles are diesel engines found in?
o Utility vehicles o Farm equipment o Ships o Passenger vehicles
370
* T/F. Diesel engines are better for the environment that spark ignition combustion engines.
o False, although diesel engines release less CO2 when compared to spark ignition combustion, diesel engine release more NOx and PM
371
* What do vehicle engines emit?
o CO2 o H2O o N2 o CO o PM
372
* What is the common formula of gasoline?
o CxHy
373
* What is octane?
o C8H18, which is what we find in typical unleaded gasoline
374
* What is the gasoline air to fuel ratio?
o How much air (O2 and N2) is required to burn fuel
375
* What is the air to fuel ratio for octane gas?
o 15 (1710/114)
376
* Why do we use the fuel to air ratio?
o To calculate and equivalence ratio Φ
377
* What does it mean when the equivalence ratio is equal to 1?
o The combustion is stoichiometric o All oxygen is consumed
378
* What does it mean when the equivalence ratio is less than 1?
o This indicates lean fuel conditions o You have excess air
379
* Why do you not want lean fuel conditions?
o It may damage the engine
380
* What does it mean when the equivalence ratio is greater than 1?
o Fuel rich conditions o You have too little air
381
* What is bad about an equivalence ratio over 1?
o Excess carbon monoxide will be released
382
* What is the common equivalence ratio?
o Greater than 1
383
* T/F. The constituents to produce gasoline in oil refineries are pretty standard across companies.
o False they vary
384
* Where will you find lead in gasoline?
o As of 2021, lead in gasoline is gone
385
* What are some examples of alternative fuels?
o Alcohol fuels such as methanol and ethanol o compressed
386
* What are the emissions produced from alcohol fuels?
o Methanol o Formaldehyde o NOx
387
* Why do we care about formaldehyde emissions?
o Formaldehyde is photochemically reactive
388
* Which alcohol fuel is most common?
o E10, a 90/10 blend of gasoline and alcohol * Look up LPG and CNG
389
* What are low emission vehicles?
o Vehicles that do not produce as much NOx and CO2 o These vehicle include hybrid and electric vehicles
390
* What are hybrid vehicles?
o Vehicles that combine EV and ICE (internal combustion engine)
391
* What is considered a zero emission vehicle (ZEV)?
o Electric
392