midterm Flashcards
- What are the three main atmospheric elements?
o Nitrogen (78%)
o Oxygen (20.9%)
o Argon (0.93%)
- Do nitrogen levels vary a lot in the environment?
o No, nitrogen levels remain consistent in the environment
- What is happening to the concentration of nitrogen in the atmosphere because of human activity?
o Nitrogen concentrations are increasing
- What is the role of nitrogen in the environment?
o Limited direct role but serves as a precursor molecule of nitrate which is used by plants to synthesize molecules essential to life
- Why is having too much nitrogen in the atmosphere bad?
o Too much nitrogen results in algal blooms which suffocates the water
- Why is oxygen important?
o Vital to almost all life
o Precursor for O3 which absorbs high energy UV light
- What is argon?
o An inert gas
- What are the trace gases that make up the rest of the atmosphere composition?
o Carbon dioxide
o Water vapor
- What is the source of carbon from which all life is based?
o Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
- What chemical compound is the basis for the Global Warming Potential (GWP)?
o Carbon dioxide
- What is the Global Warming Potential (GWP)?
o The potential of any chemical to add to the global warming problem
- What does it mean if methane has a GWP of 28?
o 1 molecule of methane contributes as much as 28 molecules of carbon dioxide
- What compound is the most important greenhouse gas?
o Carbon dioxide
- Why is carbon dioxide the most important greenhouse gas?
o Carbon dioxide accounts for the greatest portion of warming by anthropogenic activities
- T/F. Carbon dioxide levels are steady in the environment?
o False, carbon dioxide levels are increasing
- When did carbon dioxide levels begin to rise?
o 1870, the industrial revolution
- Why do we have a huge increase in carbon dioxide levels beginning in 1960?
o The development of cars becoming cheaper
- What is the most variable atmospheric component?
o Water
- What is vapor pressure?
o The partial pressure of water vapor
o Humidity
- What are the two types of humidity?
o Absolute
o Relative
- As temperature increases, what happens to the ability of air to hold water?
o Air can hold more water at higher temps
What happens to relative humidity as the temperature increases
o Relative humidity decreases as temperatures increase
o Since air can hold more water at higher temperatures
- What are the components of the Psychrometric chart pictured on the right?
o Dry bulb
o Wet bulb
o Specific humidity
o Dew point
o Relative humidity
o Saturation line
o Humidity ratio
- How do you get the dry bulb temperature?
o Hang a thermometer
- Where is the wet bulb temperature on the psychrometric chart?
o The top curved line
- How do you get the wet bulb temperature?
o They take a thermometer and cover it with a wet cloth and as the water evaporates it cools off
- What is the wet bulb temperature in comparison to the dry bulb temperature?
o Wet bulb temperature is always less than the dry bulb temperature
- Where is the specific humidity on the psychrometric chart?
o Right side
o Shows the humidity ratio in pounds of water per pounds of air
- What is grains of water?
o Specific humidity
o How many grains of water you have in the pound of air
- What is dew point?
o 100% humidity
- Where is the dew point depicted on the psychrometric chart?
o Same line as wet bulb
- Where is relative humidity depicted on the psychrometric chart?
o The curved line
- At 100% relative humidity, what is the the relative humidity similar to?
o The wet bulb line
- If you have a dry bulb temperature of 95 and a wet bulb temperature of 78, what is the relative humidity?
o The curve line at the intersection
o Look at the yellow dot
o 47%
- What is the humidity ratio?
o From the yellow line, move directly ro the right to get 0.017
- What is the specific humidity?
o 0.017 x 7,000 = 119
- What is the dew point?
o Go straight across to the elft from the yellow dot
o 72 degrees F
- What is the maximum amount of water that can be held at this point?
o We want the maximum amount of water that can be held at this 78 wet bulb
o From the tip of the left blue line at the 78 wet bulb point, go directly to the right to get 0.022
- If our dry bulb temp is 85 and the wet bulb temp is 73, what is the relative humidity? Humidity ratio? Specific humidity? Dew point? Maximum water held at 100% relative humidity?
o Relative humidity: 55%
o Humidity ratio: 0.013
o Specific humidity: 0.013 x 7,000 = 91
o Dew point: 65
o Maximum water held: 0.017 x 7,000 = 119
- What comprises the solar radiation the earth receives?
o Infrared: 49%
o Visible light: 42%
o UV radiation: 8%
- What does the amount of solar radiation received depend on?
o The angle of inclination of earth
- Does the solar radiation at the poles vary?
o The poles get the same amount of radiation all the time
- What do the differences in radiation cause?
o Differences in thermal energy
- What pressure results from warm air?
o High pressure
- What pressure results in storms?
o Low pressure
- In what air pressure is air more unstable?
o Low pressure
- What causes climates?
o The movement of pressure from high to low
o Warm currents move poleward
o Cold currents move towards the equator
- What are the vertical temperature gradients?
o Troposphere
o Tropopause
o Stratosphere
o Mesosphere
o Thermosphere
o Ionosphere
- What are the characteristics of the troposphere?
o Unstable, leads to bad weather
o In the troposphere, the temperature decreases with increasing altitude
- What are the characteristics of the tropopause?
o Isothermic: the temperature pauses
o Stable
- What are the characteristics of the stratosphere?
o Temperature increases with altitude due to UV absorption by ozone
o Relatively stable
- What are the characteristics of the Mesosphere?
o Temperature deceases with altitude
o Rapid vertical mixing as a result of cold temperature
- Which sphere has the coldest temperatures?
o Stratosphere
- What are the characteristics of the thermosphere?
o High temperatures due to absorption of short wavelength radiation
- What is the characteristics of the ionosphere?
o Layer of atmosphere with ionic version of oxygen and nitrogen molecules
- What happens to atmospheric pressure as the temperature increases?
o Atmospheric pressure increases due to the kinetic energy of the molecules
- What is standard atmosphere?
o 760 mm Hg
o 1.01325 x 105 Pa
- What kind of weather does high pressure lead to?
o Warmer, dry weather
- What kind of weather does low pressure lead to?
o Colder, more unstable weather
- What is air pollution?
o The introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment
- What is natural air pollution?
o Pollution that occurs as a result of natural processes like volcanic activity, fires, decomposition, and ocean spray
- T/F. Natural pollution is the greatest pollutant.
o True, but the effect as a pollutant is minimal
- What are some causes of anthropogenic air pollution?
o Deforestation
o Industrial revolution
- What is haze?
o Particles suspended in air, reducing visibility by scattering light
- What is fog?
o Water droplets suspended in the atmosphere in the vicinity of the earth’s surface that affect visibility
- What is smog?
o Fog or haze combined with smoke and other atmospheric pollutants
- What is a primary pollutant?
o Pollutants from transportation, industry, waste disposal, etc.
- What are the two types of primary pollutants?
o Mobile
o Stationary
- What are mobile pollutants?
o Pollutants that move such as automobiles, train, and planes
- What are stationary pollutants?
o Pollutants that do not move such as power plants and industrial factories
- What are the two types of sources for pollutants?
o Point source
o Area source
- To limit air pollution, what did the CAA require?
o The development of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
- What is the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS)?
o The standard that sets limits on 6 “criteria” air pollutants
- What are the 6 criteria air pollutants se by NAAQS?
o CO
o NO2
o Pb
o O3
o PM10
o PM2.5
o VOC
- Even though we are significantly reducing emissions, why do we still see an increase in current emissions?
o Increase in population
o Increase in power use
o Increase in cars on the road
- What are the anthropogenic sources of CO2¬?
o Fossil fuel use
o Land conversion
- What is land conversion?
o The shift of vegetation into the ground
- What are some examples of CO2 sinks?
o Deep sea
o Ocean sediment
o Fossil fuel reserves
- Why do sinks contribute to the pollution problem?
o When the sinks are disturbed, CO2 is brought into the atmosphere
- Where do emissions of carbon monoxide come from?
o Biomass burning
o Combustion
- What type of combustion results carbon monoxide release into the atmosphere?
o Incomplete combustion
- How does incomplete combustion result in carbon monoxide release into the environment?
o During combustion, CO reacts with oxygen to produce CO2
o If there is insufficient O2, then there is excess CO
- Which has higher levels of carbon monoxide ambient concentrations or background levels in urban areas due to vehicle usage?
o Ambient concentrations
- How do carbon monoxide sinks occur?
o Uptake by soil
o Conversion to O3 in the troposphere
- How does methane emission occur?
o Digestion of cellulose by livestock
o Decomposition of organic material
o Coal
o Refineries
- How do methane sinks occur?
o Methane conversion to water and a methyl group when there is a reaction with a hydroxyl group
- What happens if there is too much carbon monoxide in the presence of methane?
o Carbon monoxide also uses hydroxyl groups that will reduce the ability for methane to react with it, increasing methane concentrations
- How are sulfur compounds emitted into the environment?
o Volcanoes
o Combustion of fuel and biomass
o Sulfur-containing metal ores
- Why has sulfur concentrations decreased over the years?
o Control technologies on industries
o Reduction of coal use
- What are scrubbers?
o Attached to industrial buildings
o This is a limestone and water mixture that combines with sulfur to produce Gypsums which can then be recycled
- Why can nitrogen be bad in the atmosphere if it is naturally found in high concentrations?
o The precursor molecules leads to various NOX which can cause ozone depletion, global warming, and oxidation of biogenic VOCs like isoprene
- What is aerodynamic equivalent diameter (AED)?
o This is how we get the nomenclature for PM
o A method of standardization since all particles come in different shapes and sizes
o AED is based on the diameter of a spherical particle with a density of 1 g/cm3
o Particles with an AED of PM2.5, regardless of actual shape will settle at the same velocity as a spherical particles with 2.5 diameter
- What are the two classes that atmospheric particles can be divided in?
o Coarse particles
o Fine particles
- How are coarse particles generated?
o Mechanical means such as jack hammering and erosion
- What kind of compounds tend to make up ultrafine particles?
o Sulfate and organic compounds
- What is Aitken range?
o Produced by combustion, coagulation, and condensation of gas-phase particulates
- What is dispersion?
o Pollutants mixing with air resulting in lower ground-level concentrations (dilution)
- What is transport?
o Process by which air motions carry pollution from one region to another
- What is deposition?
o Transfer of gas and particulate-phase substances to vegetation, water, and other surfaces (removal)
- When pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere from a point or area source, what happens?
o Pollutents are dispersed (diluted) by air moving horizontally and vertically
o Transported from one location to another
- Why is transport important?
o Transport enhances dilution and can allow mixing of various pollutants from otherwise distant sources
- Where does dispersion and transport occur?
o Planetary boundary layer (PBL)
- What are the four scales of motion?
o Microscale
o Mesoscale
o Synoptic scale
o Global scale
- What is the microscale?
o Local, no more than 24 hs
o Tornados, rainbos, soil temperature, tracking of air pollution
o What you see
- What is the mesoscale?
o A few days
o Includes thunderstorms, convective processes
- What is synoptic scale?
o Many days
o Thousands of kilometers
o Hurricanes, fronts, high and low pressure systems
- What is the global scale?
o Weeks to months
o Large areas of the globe
o Polar jet streams, trade winds, El Nino
- What is the mixing of the planetary boundary layer?
o The PBL is relatively well-mixed on a large scale
- What is the mixing on the local (microscale)?
o Not great mixing
o Air emissions can lead to harmful health conditions based on prevailing atmospheric conditions
- What conditions affect mixing?
o Wind
o Turbulence
o Stability
o Inversions
- What is wind speed affected by?
o Temperature and surface roughness
- What is the wind surrounding urban areas?
o Urban areas tend to have lower velocity winds than suburban and rural due to more surface roughness
- Why do we like large wind velocities?
o Greater wind velocities allow for more air volume to aid in dispersing of contaminants
- What is the rule of thumb for wind and dilution?
o Dilution is inversely proportional to wind speed
o If wind speed doubles, concentration of pollutants is cut in half
- What is turbulence?
o Eddies that are produced by mechanical or thermal forces
- What is turbulence on the micro scale?
o Air movement over shorter time scales
- What is turbulence on the meso scale?
o Air movement by wind
- What causes mechanical turbulence?
o Turbulence caused by wind moving around structures and vegetation
- What causes thermal turbulence?
o Heating and cooling of air near the surface
- When does turbulence tend to occur?
o Both forms of turbulence occurs during daylight
- How does turbulence affect dispersion?
o Turbulence enhances dispersion and decreases concentration of pollutants
- How does stability affect dispersion?
o As stability increases, dispersion decreases
- What is lapse rate?
o The rate of temperature change with height
- What is the tropospheric lapse rate?
o -6.5 C/km
- What is adiabatic lapse rate?
o Theoretical change of temperature with height when no heat energy is transferred to air
o -10 C/km
- What are the characteristics of a near adiabatic lapse rate?
o Small decrease in temp with height
o Air cools as it expands but still close to adiabatic lapse rate
o Found in cloudy or windy conditions
o Dispersion is relatively good
- What are the characteristics of a super adiabatic lapse rate?
o Greater decrease in temp with height than A
o Parcel of air will rise rapidly
o Very unstable, strong vertical air motion
o Found on clear days with light winds
o Dispersion is excellent
- What are the characteristics of an isothermal layer?
o Temperature does not change with heigh
o Parcel of air rises slowly
o Stable atmosphere
o Moderate dispersion
- What are the characteristics of an inversion layer?
o Temperature increases with heigh
o Inverted temperature changes
o Very stable atmosphere with no vertical air motion
o Found on clear nights with light winds
o Dispersion is poor
What happens during an inversion?
o When lapse rates are positive
o Temperature increases with height
- What are the four types of inversions?
o Frontal
o Advective
o Radiational
o Subsidence
- What is a frontal inversion?
o Warm front flows over cold front
o Limited effect on air quality
- What is an advective inversion?
o Refers to horizontal transfer
o Warm air flows over cold surface
o Advective is day to day inversion
- What causes radiational inversions?
o Colling of the ground
- When do radiational inversions form?
o On clear nights
- When do radiational inversion break up?
o As the sun starts to warm up the ground and air
- T/F. Radiational inversions on flat terrain greatly impact the air quality.
o False, it has limited impact
- What type of inversion has the greatest impact on river valleys?
o Radiational inversions
o More important in valleys than in flat terrain
- What parts of a stack impact air quality?
o Height of stack
- What causes subsidence inversion?
o Subsidence of air from widespread high pressure system
- Where is subsidence inversion common?
o Northern regions and subtropical areas
- When do subsidence inversions affect air quality?
o When close to the ground
- What do point source plumes release?
o A combination of gas-vapor particulates
- Which part of the plum will settle close to the source?
o Particulates >20 micrometers
- Which particulates will disperse similarly to gases and vapors from a plume?
o AED<1
- How do pollutants move?
o From high concentrations to low concentrations and dispersion may occur by diffusion
- What direction do plumes spread?
o Vertically and horizontally
- What part of the stack is dispersion affected by?
o Physical height
o Plume rise
- What is plume rise?
o The distance from the top of the stack to the center of the plume (horizontal plume)
- What is effective stack height?
o Height from the base of the stack to the center of the plume
- What happens when you increase stack height?
o Dispersion increases
- How do high winds affect stack height?
o High winds can decrease the effective stack height by decreasing plume rise, and the distance to where the contaminant may be brought to the ground
- What are the three major types of plumes?
o Coning
o Fanning
o Looping
- When does a coning plume form?
o Lapse rates are neutral to isothermal
o Cloudy or windy days, or at night
o Slightly unstable air
- When do fanning plumes form?
o Stable conditions
o Little vertical movement, but can have great horizontal movement
- When do looping plumes form?
o Lapse rate is superadiabatic
o Calm winds
o Looping motion comes from rise and fall of air currents
- What is dry deposition?
o Direct transfer of substances to water, vegetation
What are the 3 methods of dry deposition?
o Impaction
o Sedimentation
o Uptake by plants
- What affects deposition?
o Deposition velocity
- What increases deposition velocity?
o High for coarse particles and nitric acid
- What is wet deposition?
o Transfer to earth via aqueous form (rain, snow, dew)
- What do sinks do to pollutants?
o They remove them
- Sinks do not perfectly remove pollutants from the environment, what can occur if pollutants remain in the environment?
o Long and short term changes to the environment
- What are the long and short-term changes of chemicals composition in the environment dependent on?
o Concentration of contaminants
o Half-lives of pollutants
o Dispersion
o Transport
- What scale are the long and short-term changes?
o Local
o Regional
o Global
- What is the most recognizable effect of air pollution?
o Visibility reduction
- What are natural sources of visibility reduction?
o Volcanic eruptions
o Haze
- What are anthropogenic reductions in visibility?
o Smog
o Ozone
o Particulate formation
- What causes reduction in visibility?
o Absorption and scattering of light by particulates and gases
- What part of the EM spectrum can we see?
o 400-700 µm portion
- Why do we see white colors?
o All the colors are reflected off a substance
- Why do we see black colors?
o All the colors are absorbed
o All the wavelengths are absorbed
- Why do we see one color?
o All the other colors have been absorbed and only the one color is being reflected back to us
- What is the brightest object perceived as?
o White because it reflects the most light
o All other colors are perceived in comparison
- If you are in a room and shine only a red light onto blue pants, what color will the pants be?
o Black
- When does Rayleigh scattering occur?
o When light waves interact with atmospheric particles that are smaller in size than the wavelength of the light
- How does Rayleigh scattering occur?
o As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, it scatters off objects such as air molecules, dust, gases and vapors, and other particulate matter
o Light will then scatter in all direction
o The light will bounce of small particles
Smaller than the wavelength (400-700 nm range)
- Why do we mostly see a blue sky?
o Blue and violet have the shortest wavelength and most particles are smaller than 400 µm
o Due to the small size of the atmospheric matter, particles will tend to scatter the wavelengths of light that are closer in size
o Well blue is at the bottom of the light spectrum at 400 µm
o Because blue light is preferentially scattered, we perceive the sky as blue
- What happens when you look at an area with different molecules in the atmosphere or where that molecules are larger in size like a volcanic eruption?
o The particles tend to be large, closer to the 700 µm range
o Because light scatters at a wavelength closer to particle size, larger particles will scatter more red and orange light due to the higher wavelength
- What happens to Reyleigh scattering as the atmospheric density decreases?
o Reyleigh scattering decreases
o Only the smallest wavelengths tend to be scattered because there’s fewer molecules
- How does altitude effect Reyleigh scattering?
o Although the horizon at sea level will look blue it may seem lighter because the light has to pass through more of the atmosphere and is scattered more
As the sun gets to sea level, it has to travel through the atmosphere
There is more small particulate matter at the top to scatter
- What wavelengths are scattered at high altitude?
o Only the smallest wavelength because higher altitude have smaller particles
- Why is space black?
o Space has no air and particles to scatter light
- What makes the blue ridge mountains blue?
o The large number of conifers releasing isoprene, a natural hydrocarbon and pollutant
o Not all mountains look like this because not all mountains have these trees
- T/F. Rayleigh scattering only comes from artificial pollutants.
o False, the blue ridge mountains are an example of natural scattering
- What has caused the uptick in pollution?
o Human activity
- What is plume blight?
o The stuff that come from the plume
- What kind of human activity has resulted in increased pollution and decreased visibility?
o Smog
o Plume blight
o Haze
- What caused an increase in pollution in pristine areas over the arctic circle and southeast Asia?
o Pollution that has transported
- How does smog affect visibility?
o It reduces it
- What does the air quality index measure?
o Ground level ozone
o Particulate matter pollution
o Carbon monoxide
o Sulfur dioxide
o Nitrogen dioxide
- What warning does the AQI provide?
o The air quality index is divided into 6 categories that is used to warn populations of air pollution levels and possible health issues that can result
- What is arctic haze?
o A form of air pollution that is found in pristine areas
- What causes the arctic haze?
o Anthropogenic pollution, specifically the burning of coal and petroleum products (sulfur and carbon, some metals)
o Due to limited removal process (snow and rainfall) the pollutants can remain in the atmosphere for a longer time period
- When is the arctic haze found?
o In the spring months due to the limited removal process
o No rain or snow in the atmosphere so the pollutants stick around longer
- What is arctic haze an example of?
o An atmospheric effect from pollution in an area where you would not expect to see it
- What is turbidity?
o A measurement of the vertical extinction of light scattering
o As the sun moves, it has a lot of space to travel with the air getting denser
- How does turbidity affect sunlight that reaches the ground?
o Light scattering gets extinguished so this leads to decreased sunlight at ground level
- What causes turbidity in the troposphere?
o Human activities and aerosol pollution
- What leads to turbidity in the stratosphere?
o Natural processes such as volcanic activity
- How does turbidity in the stratosphere affect global temperatures?
o Turbidity in the stratosphere can decrease global temperatures
- What is a heat island?
o An urban area which has elevated temperatures when compared to surrounding areas
- What causes heat islands to form?
o Decreased air movement from increased surface roughness of buildings
o Solar energy absorption
o Heat storage
o Energy utilizing processes
- How do heat islands effect the weather?
o Less fog and snow
o Lower relative humidity
o Fewer nocturnal inversions
o More rain downwind
- What is the scientific name for acid rain?
o Acid deposition
- Why is acid deposition used instead of acid rain?
o Because the phenomenon includes wet and dry deposition, acid fog, clouds and dew
o This name encompasses all acidic deposition
- Why is rain acidic with a pH of 5.65 if water has a pH of 7?
o The CO2 will equilibrate with water and become more acidic
- In the northern US, what has caused the acidic deposition?
o Sulfur and nitric acid from power plants, boilers, smelters, and cars
- Over the past years, sulfur emissions have not increased but are the sulfer in the air has, why?
o Cars producing NOx
o This precursor molecule causes photochemical changes which become H2SO4 and HNO3
o This is why we still have to worry about NOx
- What has caused acidic deposition in the western US?
o Nitric acid from cars
- How has acidic deposition affected the lakes?
o Acidic deposition has led to chronic acidification of lakes and streams
- What element is a major contributor of aquatic acidification?
o Sulfur from acidic deposition
- Where is aquatic identification found?
o Northeast and Florida
- What happens to the pH of an aquatic acidification area as distance from the source to receiving water increases?
o Neutralization will increase
o The water will move through the environment and rock and become less acidic
- How does acidification affect the soil?
o By leaching base cations and toxic metals
- What are the anthropogenic sources of nitrogen?
o NOx from fossil combustion
o NH3 from fertilizers and animals
- Where are nitrate depositions commonly found?
o Northeastern and mid-Atlantic states
- Where are ammonia depositions found?
o Farming states
- How do human emissions of NOx compare to natural emissions?
o Human NOx emissions are 3 times higher than natural emissions
- How does nitrogen affect the ecological environment?
o Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient
o Algal blooms will result from too much nitrogen increasing growth and suffocating everything else
- Why is Mercury a major public health concern?
o Bioaccumulation
o Mercury is bioaccumulated and can be thousands of times greater in fish and birds in their prey
- Where is mercury naturally found?
o Rocks and minerals
- What human activity has increased mercury deposition?
o Combustion of coal, medical, and hazardous waste
o Thermometer and barometers
o Manufacturing process (electrical equipment, chlorine)
- T/F. Elemental mercury does not travel far from the source.
o False, elemental mercury is very mobile and can travel great distances
- How soluble is ionic mercury?
o Very soluble
- What is ionic mercury transformed to by microorganisms that make it toxic?
o Methyl mercury
- Why are pesticides, PCBs, dioxins, and furans concerning in the environment?
o These compounds are highly persistent in the environment with half live ranging from 10 to 20 years
o Very mobile due to high vitalization
o Bioaccumulate in the food chain
- What are the health concerns of pesticides, PCBs, dioxins, and furans?
o Neurotoxins, carcinogens, endocrine disruptors
o Dioxin is a teratogen
- Are PCBs found in the US?
o PCB are banned in the US
- How were PCBs, dioxins, and furans released into the environment?
o PCBs and pesticides were manufactured internationally
o Dioxin and furans are by products
- Why what the super sonic transport and nuclear testing questioned?
o Emission of NO molecules destroy O3
- Where is the reaction of NO of most concern?
o In the stratosphere
o In the troposphere, NO does not make it to the stratosphere due to the short half-life
- Why was there a global phase out of CFCs?
o Scientist noticed it resulted in an increase in the ozone hole
- Why is the ozone hole over antarctica?
o The polar vortex prevents Antarctic air from mixing with Earth’s atmosphere
o The extreme cold causes frozen clouds which form an electrostatic attraction with CFC and other molecules
- What is directly correlated with the size of the ozone hole?
o Strength of the polar vortex
- What is the primary source of CFCs?
o They are anthropogenic
- What is the cycle of ozone in the stratosphere?
o Ozone is constantly being created and destroyed resulting in a net zero reaction
- T/F. The ozone layer is even around the planet.
o False, it varies spatially and temporally over the planet
- If more ozone is produced in the tropics, why are ozone levels higher in the poles?
o Transport
- What signifies the production and destruction of ozone?
o The Chapman cycle?
- What is the Chapman cycle?
o A photon of light initially reacts with oxygen to produce 2 free radical oxygens
o The free radical can react with molecular oxygen to produce ozone
o Step 3 is the sink. Ozone is being naturally destroyed
- What is the source of ozone?
o When a free radical oxygen reacts with oxygen to create ozone
- What is the sink of ozone?
o When a photon reacts with ozone to eliminate ozone
- Where are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) found?
o Refrigerants
o Air conditioners
o Aerosol sprays
o Paints
o Chemical solvents
- Why are CFCs extremely dangerous?
o Ther are extremely stable and can stick around long enough to be transported to the stratosphere
o They do not get broken down in the troposphere
- What is the CFC ozone destroying cycle?
o Chlorine is a catalyst that destroys ozone molecules
o One chlorine can destroy thousands of molecules
o CFCs act as a catalyst
- What does nitrogen do in the stratosphere?
o Act a catalyst
- What does nitrogen do in the troposphere?
o Half life is too short to be transported to the stratosphere
- What is expected as a result of the reduction in ozone depleting substances emissions?
o The ozone layer is expected to almost completely recover by the middle of the century
o The length of time is due to the natural sink processes for current ODS in the stratosphere
Natural sink process takes a very long time
- What does global warming refer to?
o Average global temperatures
- Why are we in global warming?
o Average global temperatures have increased by 1.1 degrees C since pre industrial era
- What does climate change refer to?
o The changes in global weather patterns leading to an increase in length of hurricane season, more intense fires, tornadic actions, loss of winter
o We are now dealing with weather extremes
- What is the difference between global warming and climate change?
o Global warming is the gradual increase of earth’s surface temperature
o Climate change is the long-term change in global weather patterns
- T/F. Global temperatures have remained steady over the last 2,000 years.
o False, global temperature have risen faster over the last 50 years than anytime in the last 2000 years
- What was the hottest month and year ever recorded?
o 2023 was the hottest year
o August 2023 was the hottest month ever
- When have the 10 warmest years on record occurred?
o Between 2014 to 2023
- What is the 2 degree threshold?
o It is a general scientific consensus that reaching a 2 degree Celsius rise in temperature will lead to irreversible changes to our atmosphere and planet and is considered a critical threshold
- What has the 2 degree threshold been lowered to?
o 1.5 degrees C
- What is radiative forcing?
o The change in the net, downward minus upward, radiative flux (expressed in W/m2) due to a change in an external driver of climate change
- What does positive forcing do to the earth?
o Heats it
- What does negative forcing do to the earth?
o Cool it
o More outgoing than incoming
- What are contributors to radiative forcing?
o Greenhouse gasses
o Aerosols
o Sulfor dioxide
o Organic carbon
o Black carbon
- What do aerosols cause?
o Cooling
- What is radiative effectiveness similar to?
o Global warming potential
o Carbon dioxide is 1 and everything else is compared to it
o The numbers are pretty close to each other
- What are the effects of global warming?
o Economic collapse
o Marshall island vanishing
o Food and water security will lead to more conflict
o Long periods of extreme heat
Nights are not cooling off
o Vector borne illness ranges will shift northward as habitats change
- What is episodic air pollution?
o These are characterized by short-term increases in air pollution that are significantly greater than normal daily levels
- What can the episodic air pollution lead to?
o Scientific documentation has provided solid evidence that these episodes can lead to illness, both acute and chronic, even death
- When can interaction effects occur?
o During transportation and deposition of pollutants, there is opportunity for the mixture of gases and particulates to interact and change the physiological effects of each other
- What are the types of interaction effects?
o Additive
o Antagonistic
o Synergistic
- What are additive effects?
o Doubling the effect of the pollutant
- What are antagonistic effects?
o Decrease in the effect in the presence of a second chemical
- What are synergistic effects?
o Increase in the effect in the presence of another chemical that is greater than the sum
o This can be instances such as making the effect go faster
- T/F. Pollutants affects every part of the body.
o False, pollutants are primarily organized to have impacts on specific organs
- What are the two types of effects pollutants can have on the body?
o Direct
o Indirect
- What are some examples of direct effects of pollutants on the body?
o Particles impacting surface of the eye and causing irritation, redness, etc.
- What are some examples of indirect effects of pollutants on the body?
o Pollutants that are initially inhaled but then are pulled into the bloodstream and deposited in other organ systems
- Why do we care about PM 2.5?
o Particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 can penetrate all three respiratory systems (inhalable, respirable, and thoracic)
o PM2.5 has a high deposition fraction in the pulmonary region
- What are the three regions of the respiratory system?
o Nasopharyngeal region
o Tracheobronchial region
o Pulmonary region
- What happens as size of the particle increases?
o The area where the particle will have its effect will be different
- Why do we care about PM10?
o Deposition of PM7.5 mainly occurs the greatest in the upper region of the lung and the tracheobronchial region
- What is the economic cost of air pollution?
o $4.6 trillion globally
- Why do we care about air pollution?
o Air pollution is a major threat to human health with major disparities related to socioeconomic indicators
o PM2.5 or less has been shown to have the strongest correlation (when compared to other pollutants such as the NQAAS)
- How many deaths due to stroke, lung cancer, and heart disease, are due to air pollution?
o 1/3 of deaths
- What are the health risks associated with breathing dirty air?
o Respiratory infections
o Cardiovascular disease
o Stroke
o Chronic lung disease
o Lung cancer
- What are the different NAAQS (criteria air pollutants)?
o Carbon monoxide
o Lead
o Nitrogen dioxide
o Ozone
o PM2.5
o Particle pollution
o PM10
o Sulfur Dioxide
- Why are NAAQS created?
o They are recommendation designed to protect human health
o Due to clean air act
o Over time it has become more strict
- What has been the trend in pollution because of these regulations?
o Air quality has greatly gotten better
o Lead is the best example
o Every pollutant has gone down
- What is PM2.5?
o The atmospheric particulate matter (PM) that have an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers, which is about 3% the diameter of a human hair
- What is the WHO annual mean standard for PM2.5?
o 10 micrograms/m3
- What is the WHO 24 hour mean standard for PM2.5?
o 25 micrograms/m3
- What is the US annual and 24 hr mean for PM 2.5?
o Annual: 12 micrograms/m3
o 24 hour: 35 micrograms/m3
o But the US has gone down below the national standard (not every state because this is average)
- Why do we care about the aerodynamic diameter?
o Aerodynamic diameter controls where the particle settles in the body
- T/F. Particles are perfectly round.
o False, which is why we use aerodynamic diameter
- What happens to compact particles?
o They settle better
- What happens to particles that are spread out? Molecularly
o They settle higher
- PM pollution contributes to how much global risk factors for disease?
o 4 out of the 10 global risk factors
- Where can PM particles go?
o Every region of the body including lungs, heart, kidney, brain, with the highest exposure route from air (water and food are about equal)
o The smaller the particle, the farther it does
- What does deposition efficiency depend on?
o Particle size
- Particulate air pollution can cut global life expectancy by how many years?
2
- What are the sources of ambient particulate matter?
o Natural sources
o Human activity
o Vehicles
o Household wood, coal burning
o Power plants and industry
- What is the greatest human health risk?
o Air pollution surpassing smoking
o You lose 1.8 years per person due to air pollution
This is the average and may change
- By reducing air pollution, what burden can countries reduce?
o Stroke
o Heart disease
o Lung cancer
o Acute respiratory disease
o Asthma
- What percent of the world population lives in places where WHO air quality guidelines are not met?
o Over 90%
- Ambient/outdoor air pollution is estimated to cause how many premature deaths worldwide?
o 4.2 million
o 91% occurred in low- middle- income countries
- Where do the greatest deaths from air pollution occur?
o South-east Asia
o Western Pacific regions
o Air pollution is disproportionately affecting people in Asia
- How is indoor air pollution a problem?
o Indoor smoke is a health risk for 3 billion people who cook and heat their homes with biomass, kerosene fuels, and coal
- Loss of life due to air pollution is dependent on what?
o Where you live
- What is the global ranking of air pollution as a risk factor for death?
o Number 5
- What are the trends in air pollution based on sociodemographic index?
o Low income are exposed to the highest levels of PM2.5 (huge variance depending on SDI index)
o Everyone breathes bad ozone
- What are short term effects?
o Effects that are temporary or immediate effects and often reversible when exposure ends
- What can long-term exposures to pollutants result in?
o Aggravated health problems
- What population is susceptible to air pollution?
o Old people
o Children
o People with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease
o Asthma
o People without a strong immune system
o Individuals living in urban area
o Women in developing countries
- Why are urban areas more susceptible to the effects of air pollution?
o Overpopulation and uncontrolled urbanization along with the development of industrialization
- In developing countries, why are women susceptible to air pollution?
o The women of the household seem to carry the highest risk for disease development due to their longer duration exposure to the indoor air pollution
- What are the major factors that affect human health with air pollution?
o Nature of pollutants (pollutants have different effects)
o Concentration of pollutants (low concentrations can be expelled more)
o Duration of exposure (concentration and duration when multiplied become dose)
o State of the health of the receptor (healthy people are less effected because they have good immunity)
o Age group of the receptor (old people and children
- What is the air pollution pyramid?
o A framework commonly used to describe the spectrum of health impacts from exposure to air pollution
o As severity of outcomes increase, the proportion of people affected decrease
- What are the common air pollutants that affect human health?
o Carbon monoxide
o Sulphur dioxide
o Nitrogen oxide
o Ozone
o Particulate matter
o PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons)
o Dioxins
o VOCs (volatile organic compounds)
- Why do we care about really small particles?
o They can travel to the brain
- Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?
o It is colorless, odorless, tasteless and is known as the silent killer
o Reduces RBC carrying capacity of oxygen
- What can release carbon monoxide?
o Incomplete combustion of fuel from transportation sector
o Energy production
o Residential heating units
o Industrial processes
o On-road vehicles is the greatest source (why we want electric vehicles)
- Effects of CO depend on what?
o Concentration
- How is sulfur dioxide produced?
o Burning of material with a high sulfur content
Cola-fired power stations
Diesel vehicles
Oil refineries
Shipping
- What are the short term health effects of sulfur dioxide?
o Temporary breathing difficulty (bronchoconstriction)
o Eye/nose/throat irritation
o Mucus secretion
- What are the long term exposure of sulfur dioxide effects?
o Respiratory illness
o Aggravates existing heart disease
- What caused the deaths of the great London Smoke?
o Sulfur dioxide
- What are the sources of nitrogen oxide?
o Combustion of fuel at high temperature from mobile and stationary combustion sources
Car and truck exhausts
Coal-fired power stations
Industry
- What are the health effects from prolonged exposure of nitrogen oxide?
o Pulmonary fibrosis (lung thickens)
o Emphysema (COPD)
o Higher LRI in children
- What is ground-level ozone?
o Colorless highly irritating gas formed by photochemical reactions just above the earth’s surface
- T/F. Ozone is a primary pollutant.
o False, it is produced by precursors like NOX and VOCs (NOX or VOC driven)
o No precursor, no ozone
- T/F. We want ozone in the troposphere.
o False, ozone is bad in the troposphere
o We want ozone in the stratosphere
- What are the short term effects of ozone?
o Coughing, wheezing, irritation, headache, dizziness, fatigue
- What are the long-term effects of ozone?
o Respiratory disease, cardiovascular damage, harm to liver/spleen/blood, nervous system damage, cancer, birth defects, death
- Why is lead bad?
o Its widespread use caused extensive environmental contamination and health problems in many parts of the world
o Children are particularly vulnerable to the neurotoxic effects
- What are the sources of lead?
o Burning of fuels with lead
o Metal processing
o Waste incinerators
o Production of lead-acid batteries
o Plumbing material and alloys
- What does particulate matter encompass?
o A mixture of solid, liquid or both particles suspended in the air
- What are the sources of particulate matter?
o Agricultural operations
o Industrial processes
o Combustion of wood and fossil fuels
o Construction
o Vehicular emission
o Entrainment of road dust into the air
- Why do we care about fine particles?
o Fine particles can invade the deepest parts of the airways and more easily reach the bloodstream
o They can have carcinogenic elements, we don’t know
- Order particles by size
o Ultrafine particles (0.0001 mm)
o Inhalable particles (0.001 mm)
o PM2.5 (0.0025 mm)
o PM10 (0.01 mm)
- What are the sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)?
o Coal and tar sediments
o Incomplete combustion of organic matter (forest fires)
o Incineration of solid waste
o Vehicular emissions and engines
- What are the short term effects of PAHs?
o Vomiting, nausea, difficulty moving, confusion, skin irritation, eye irritation
- What are the long-term effects of PAHs?
o Cataracts, reduced immunity, hemolysis, breathing problems, liver/kidney damage, pulmonary abnormalities, cancer
- Why are VOCs bad?
o VOCs such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene have been found to be associated with cancer in humans
- What are the sources of VOCs?
o Anthropogenic
Energy production, industry, solvent evaporation, waste treatment and disposal, agriculture
o Biogenic
Plants with a smell, vegetation fire, soil
- Where do dioxins come from?
o Industrial processes and natural processes (forest fires and volcanic eruptions)
- What are the short term effects of dioxins?
o Dark spots and lesions on the skin
- What are the long-term effects of dioxins?
o Developmental problems
o Impairment of the immune, endocrine, and nervous system
o Reproductive infertility
o Cancer
- What do the health impacts of air pollution depend on?
o Exposure and dose of air pollutants inhaled
o Concentrations that are harmful are dependent on pollutant
- What areas are more susceptible to air pollution?
o Urban areas due to increased urbanization and industrialization
- What is the purpose of air monitoring?
o To assess trends in global concentrations of various air pollutants
- What are some examples of monitored pollutants?
o PM2.5
o PM10
o NOx
o Sox
o Pb
- What are the two types of ai monitoring assessments?
o Qualitative
o quantitative
- What is the purpose of qualitative air monitoring assessments?
o To be used as an indicator of the presence of air pollutants
o Examples include looking at trends or just looking at the visibility
- Why do we need quantitative assessments?
o To support regulatory requirements
o This is what is used for research
- What is air monitoring used for?
o Long term trends
o Human exposure
o Epidemiological studies
o Emission reduction programs
o Effectiveness of programs
o Determining new pollutants of interest
- What are the 7 NAAQS pollutants?
o CO
o Lead
o NO2
o O3
o PM2.5
o PM10
o SO2
- What effects does a primary standard look at?
o Health effects
- What effects does a secondary standard look at?
o Environmental effects
- What are the two primary contributors of ozone?
o NOx
o VOCs
- Why are national air toxic trend sites developed?
o To monitor the hazardous air pollutants (HAPS) that are not part of NAAQS
o This can also provide as an early warning for epi studies because these pollutants might become an NAAQS later down the road
- What are some examples of the hazardous air pollutants monitored by the 26 national air toxic trend sites?
o VOCs
o Carbonyls
o PM10 metals
o PAHs
- Who sets air quality guidelines for the world to use?
o Worl health organization (WHO)
o The world health organization and IQair analyze data from over 4000 contributors, including citizens, communities, governments and private sectors
- T/F. Females are more susceptible to deaths attributed to ambient air pollution than males.
o False, males exceed the total deaths
- Which emissions are vehicles a major source for?
o VOCs
o CO
o NOx
- Why are NOx and VOC emissions from vehicles bad for the environment?
o NOx and VOC are responsible for the production of ozone in the troposphere
- How much of the energy from fossil fuels do vehicles use?
o A third of the energy from fossil are used for vehicles
- T/F. The fuel efficiency of cars have decreased over the years resulting in an increase in CO2 emission.
o False, the opposite has occurred, even though human are moving away from more energy efficient sedans, cars have become more fuel efficient resulting in a decrease in carbon dioxide production
- What are the two main types of engines used in vehicles?
o Spark ignition internal combustion engine
o Diesel combustion engine
- What kind of engine would you find in cars, light duty trucks, and motor cycles?
o Spark ignition internal combustion engine
- What kind of vehicles are diesel engines found in?
o Utility vehicles
o Farm equipment
o Ships
o Passenger vehicles
- T/F. Diesel engines are better for the environment that spark ignition combustion engines.
o False, although diesel engines release less CO2 when compared to spark ignition combustion, diesel engine release more NOx and PM
- What do vehicle engines emit?
o CO2
o H2O
o N2
o CO
o PM
- What is the common formula of gasoline?
o CxHy
- What is octane?
o C8H18, which is what we find in typical unleaded gasoline
- What is the gasoline air to fuel ratio?
o How much air (O2 and N2) is required to burn fuel
- What is the air to fuel ratio for octane gas?
o 15 (1710/114)
- Why do we use the fuel to air ratio?
o To calculate and equivalence ratio Φ
- What does it mean when the equivalence ratio is equal to 1?
o The combustion is stoichiometric
o All oxygen is consumed
- What does it mean when the equivalence ratio is less than 1?
o This indicates lean fuel conditions
o You have excess air
- Why do you not want lean fuel conditions?
o It may damage the engine
- What does it mean when the equivalence ratio is greater than 1?
o Fuel rich conditions
o You have too little air
- What is bad about an equivalence ratio over 1?
o Excess carbon monoxide will be released
- What is the common equivalence ratio?
o Greater than 1
- T/F. The constituents to produce gasoline in oil refineries are pretty standard across companies.
o False they vary
- Where will you find lead in gasoline?
o As of 2021, lead in gasoline is gone
- What are some examples of alternative fuels?
o Alcohol fuels such as methanol and ethanol
o compressed
- What are the emissions produced from alcohol fuels?
o Methanol
o Formaldehyde
o NOx
- Why do we care about formaldehyde emissions?
o Formaldehyde is photochemically reactive
- Which alcohol fuel is most common?
o E10, a 90/10 blend of gasoline and alcohol
* Look up LPG and CNG
- What are low emission vehicles?
o Vehicles that do not produce as much NOx and CO2
o These vehicle include hybrid and electric vehicles
- What are hybrid vehicles?
o Vehicles that combine EV and ICE (internal combustion engine)
- What is considered a zero emission vehicle (ZEV)?
o Electric
