Midterm Flashcards
Somatic Division (Nervous System)
Nerve cells that connect the brain to the outside world.
Autonomic Division (Nervous System)
Nerve cells that regulates vital functions such as heart rate, digestion, lung movement, sexual arousal, etc.
Vasculatures
Blood vessels of the brain.
Anterior vs. Posterior
Front vs. Back
Ventral (Inferior) vs. Dorsal (Superior)
Bottom vs. Above
Medial vs. Lateral
Middle vs. Sides
Coronal Section
Cut from one lateral side to the other lateral side and viewed from back to front.
Sagittal Section
A cut lengthways from the front to back and viewed from the side.
Horizontal Section
A cut that falls along the horizon and is usually viewed looking down on the brain from above.
Meninges
The 3 layers of membranes that protect the brain and spinal cord.
Dura Mater
The tough outer layer of fibrous tissue that encloses the brain in a loose sack.
Arachnoid Layer
Like a spider web, a thin sheet of delicate connective tissue that follows brain contours.
Pia mater
Moderately tough inner layer that clings to the brain’s surface.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Clear solution of sodium chloride and other salts that circulates around the brain and spinal cord.
Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)
Blood vessels that vascularizes the CNS (central nervous system) and that possess a highly selective semipermeable barrier that prevents solutes in circulating blood from entering into the CNS tissue.
Cerebrum
The largest area that contains major lobes of the brain.
Lateralization
Processes whereby functions become localized primarily on one side of the brain.
Cerebral Cortex
The outer layer of the cerebrum where thin set of nerve tissue that is folded many times fits into the skull akin to the bark of a tree; the outer layer of the cerebrum.
Gyrus (pl. Gyri)
Brain bumps or protrusions.
Sulcus (pl. Sulci)
Brain groves.
Frontal Lobe (Function)
Voluntary movement, expressive language, and managing high level executive functions and actions.
Parietal Lobe (Function)
Receiving and processing information.
Temporal Lobe (Function)
Auditory information processing.
Occipital Lobe (Function)
Visual perception including colour, form, and motion.
Hippocampus (Function)
Deals with spatial memory, navigation, long term memory, and turning off stress response.
Amygdala (Function)
Deals with empathy, fear, and involved in “flight or fight” response.
Hypothalamus (Function)
Central regulator for the body as it controls the release of hormones from various glands in the body.
Cingulate Gyrus (Function)
Processes emotional distress, pain, and drives body’s response to unpleasant experiences (i.e., helps to orientate body away from negative stimuli).
Basal Ganglia (Function)
A group of structures that together regulate the initiation of movement.
The Brainstem (Function)
Functions to maintain homeostasis and is involved in fine movements of the limb and face. It is comprised of 3 basic regions: diencephalon, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Diencephalon (contains what part(s) of the brain?)
Thalamus and hypothalamus.
Midbrain (contains what part(s) of the brain?)
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nigra.
Hindbrain (contains what part(s) of the brain?)
Pons and medulla.
Thalamus (function)
Processes all sensory information en route to the cortex.
Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and Nigra (functions)
Involved in rewards and excitement, or initiation of movement.
Pons (function)
The region of the brain stem most closely associated with breathing and circuits that generate respirator rhythms. Connects the cerebellum to brain stem.
Cerebellum (function)
Monitors and regulates motor behaviours, particularly in automatic movements. Responsible for balance and posture.
Neuron
Basic functional cell of nervous system designed to transmit information.
Microglia
Brain immune cell (eats damaged neurons or foreign invaders).
Astrocyte
Provides support to neurons (i.e., keeps them in place, gives them nutrients).
Oligodendrocytes
Surround the axon of the neuron with myelin to speed up transmission of a signal down an axon.
Dendrites
Information received here.
Soma
Body of the cell containing the nucleus.
Nucleus
The center of the cell.
Axon
The part of the neuron carrying an action potential.
Axon Hillock
Where the dendrites and soma ‘pinches off’ toward the axon.
Node of Ranvier
Points between oligodendroctyes.
Myelin Sheath
Fat speeding up transmission of APs (action potentials) across the axon.
Axon Terminals
Information released here.
White Matter
Myelinated axons that transmit information.
Gray Matter
Cell bodies.
Tract
Bundle of axons in the CNS (central nervous system).
Nerve
Bundle of axon in the PNS (peripheral nervous system).
Depolarization
Any charge that makes it less negative is called depolarization.
Repolarization
K+ channel open, Na+ channels slam shut. K+ ions rush out. Charge becomes more negative.
Refractory Period
Na+ channels cannot open. Voltage overshoots to even less than resting state of -70mv. AP (action potential) cannot happen.
Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (IPSP)
Neurotransmitters called “inhibitory neurotransmitters” that promote anions into the cell which hyperpolarize the cell making it less likely that it will fire an AP (action potential).
Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (EPSP)
Neurotransmitters called “excitatory neurotransmitters” that promote cations into the cell which depolarizes the post-synaptic membrane increasing the likelihood that an AP (action potential) will fire.
Threshold Voltage
-50mv
Ligands
Molecules that bind to and activate receptors.
Hormones
Chemical messenger signals that influence the body in several ways including reproduction, growth, stress, and response to injury.
Peptide
A string of amino acids.
Monoamine Hormones
Modified amino acids.
Steroid Hormones
Synthesized from cholesterol and have 4 ringed structures.
Luteinizing Hormones (LH)
Responsible for telling the body to release the egg.
Cortisol (CORT)
Stress hormone.
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CHR)
The main organizer of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Proposed a general physiological reaction to all types of stress. It has 3 stages: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion.
Sympatho-Adrenomedullary Axis (SAM axis)
Mediates the initial alarm phase in general adaptation syndrome (GAS) leading to the release of epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). This is the fast pathway for stress.
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA axis)
Mediates the resistance phase in general adaptation syndrome (GAS) and involves dealing with prolonged stress. This is the slow pathway for stress.
Innate Immune System
Involves 1st and 2nd line of defense including barriers that block entry/invasion and cells that attack invaders.
Adaptive Immune System
Involves 3rd line of defense which develops immunity after pathogen exposure.
Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs)
Shared characteristics of different types of bacteria or different types of viruses.
Phagocytosis
The process of a macrophage eating a foreign invader cell.
Cytokines
Small glycoproteins which are involved in behavioural and physiological functions such as inducing fever, stress activity, and behavioural deficits. It’s primary role is to recruit and activate/deactivate the production of immune cells.
Autocrine
Affects the generating cell.
Paracrine
Affects cells in the immediate area.
Endocrine
Affects cells remote from secreting cell.
Antigen (Ag)
Specific patterns of bacteria or viruses.
B Cells
Produce antibodies (Abs) which attach to antigens (Ags) and lead to pathogen destruction. Developed in the bone marrow and thus named B cell.
T Cells
Regulate other cells of the immune system, help them out (e.g., trigger their division), and directly kill specific infected cells (cytotoxic T cells). Developed in the thymus and thus named T cell.
Cytotoxic T Cells
T cells specifically for killing foreign invaders. They kill their targets by excysting perforin which causes pores in the cell membrane.
Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
Medicines which are widely used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and bring down a high temperature.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Packaged into chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus. Humans have 23 pairs and receive one per pair from each parent. DNA tells your body how to make amino acids.
Nucleotide Pairs
There are 4 Nucleotides: A, T, C, G. They are paired A-T, G-C.
Codons
3 nucleotides long which code for specific amino acids.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
A copy of a gene strand.
Uracil
In mRNA, thymine (T) is swapped out 1:1 for uracil.
Histones
A type of protein which binds to DNA giving its shape in chromosomes.
Chromatin
The combination of protein (namely, histone) and DNA.
Histone Acetylation
Relaxes the chromatin and increases gene transcription.
Histone Methylation
Tightens/condenses the chromatin and decreases gene transcription.
