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A&O > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Hurricane Florence

A

category 4 hurricane
2018 - august 31 to september 19
winds up to 140mph
lowest pressure 939 mb

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2
Q

What is the difference between weather and climate?

A

Weather refers to the short-term phenomena.

Climate refers to the long-term patterns.

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3
Q

What is the atmosphere composed of?

A

mixture of gas molecules, small suspended particles of solid and liquid, and falling precipitation

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4
Q

What did we learn from dropping the two paper balls in class?

A

If gravity were the only force, large and small drops would fall at the same speed.
But in reality we also have a frictional force acting due to air resistance, which causes mass (and shape) to affect the outcome.

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5
Q

What falls faster: larger water drops or smaller? Why?

A

Larger because of air resistance

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6
Q

Early inventions to measure weather (4)

A

Anemometer (wind speed) in 1450 by Leone Alberti

Hygrometer (air humidity) ~ 1450 by Nicholas of Cusa

Thermometer (air temperature) in 1593 by Galileo Galilei

Barometer (air pressure) in 1643 by Evangelista Torricelli

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7
Q

What invention marks the start of meteorology for modern times?

A

1847 - First “network” of surface weather stations with the goal of studying spatial patterns in weather phenomena more or less simultaneously to the establishment of the telegraph allowing rapid transmission of data


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8
Q

What are radiosondes?

A

unmanned air balloons in 1920 


used to take measurements in the upper atmosphere

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9
Q

What did Lewis Richardson do?

A

in 1922 had the idea of solving the equations for meteorology using numerical methods

several months to produce a wildly inaccurate six-hour forecast for an area near Munich, Germany.

estimated that 
64,000 human calculators were 
needed to keep pace with 
weather developments

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10
Q

Who is Charlie Howler?

A

Meteorologist during WWII

Very few data points– quote about elephant standing behind the barn and you can only see its tail and you’ve never seen an elephant before

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11
Q

3 modern meteorology inventions

A

First electronic computer developed 
by von Neumann in the 1940’s

First successful “Numerical weather 
predictions” lead by Jules Charney 
in 1950

First weather satellite in 1960

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12
Q

Development of climate predication

A

1950-1960: numerical techniques were applied to the problem of predicting atmospheric motion (i.e., weather prediction).

1960-1970: weather prediction models were adapted for climate purposes, but they still only contained atmospheric components.

1970’s: numerical techniques applied to oceanic motion.

1970-1980: modules were built to exchange information between atmosphere and ocean models.

These “coupled” models were the first true global climate models (GCMs), because they allowed for simulation of essential climate phenomena such as ENSO.

2000’s: biogeochemical components were embedded within GCMs, enabling simulations of the carbon cycle.

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13
Q

Equation for density

A

Density (r) = mass (kg)/ volume (m^3)

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14
Q

Another name for the average distance a molecule travels before colliding with another molecule is

A

Density

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15
Q

The density of near surface air is approximately ____

A

1kg/m^3

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16
Q

Temperature is directly proportional to

A

Kinetic energy

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17
Q

How many molecules in the food container and how fast ar they moving?

A

10,000 billion billion, moving 1000 mph

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18
Q

equation for pressure

A

p = F/A

pressure = force / area

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19
Q

pressure is typically measured in

A

pascals

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20
Q

what does pressure result from?

A

the force caused by colliding molecules

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21
Q

what happens to the pressure of a gas if we increase the density?

A

causes more collisions

pressure increases

pressure is proportional to density

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22
Q

Suppose that instead we keep the density constant and increase the temperature of the gas. What happens to the pressure of the gas?

A

causes stronger collisions because molecules are moving faster

pressure increases as we increase the temperature

pressure is proportional to temperature

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23
Q

Use the ideal gas law to explain how hot air rises

A

If we are keeping the pressure constant, having a higher temp means that the density must be lower and therefore will rise

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24
Q

How much does pressure decrease by altitude?

A

about 50% every 5km

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25
Q

Suppose you are at a location where the sea-level pressure is lower than the surface pressure. Where are you?

A

Possibly in the Death Valley, because it is located below the sea level

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26
Q

4 thermal layers of the atmosphere

A

troposphere
stratosphere
mesosphere
thermosphere

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27
Q

which is the layer where virtually all weather takes place?

A

troposphere

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28
Q

which is the coldest layer of the atmosphere?

A

the mesosphere

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28
Q

the top of the troposphere is called the _______

A

tropopause

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29
Q

which layer of the atmosphere contains the ozone layer?

A

stratosphere

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30
Q

Which layer has a very low density, almost no mass

A

Thermosphere

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31
Q

Three processes of heat transfer and examples

A

Conduction (ground heats the air)
Convection (warm air rises)
Radiation (sun heats the ground)

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32
Q

Definition and characteristics of radiation

A

Definition: transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves
- continually emitted by all substances
- requires no physical medium (can occur through empty space)

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33
Q

Definition of conduction

A

transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact

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34
Q

convection

A

transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion

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35
Q

why are clouds patchy?

A

zones of rising air next to zones of sinking air

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36
Q

what is the relationship between PGF and isobar spacing?

A

inversely proportional

the greater the isobar spacing, the lower the PGF

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37
Q

PGF equation

A

pressure difference/ distance

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38
Q

The pressure gradient force forms an angle of _____ with the isobars, pointing in the direction of ______ pressure

A

90 degrees, lower

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39
Q

What is hydrostatic balance?

A

vertical PGF in balance with gravitational force

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40
Q

describe the relationship between PGF and gravity that results in downdrafts

A

pressure gradient force is weaker than the force of gravity, when PGF is greater, this causes updrafts

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41
Q

what effect does heating an air column have on density and pressure?

A

pressure stays the same, density diminishes because the air has to expand

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42
Q

why would a hot air column next to a colder one cause PGF?

A

due to the fact that the warmer air column expands from higher temp, there is a point of higher pressure along side colder pressure on the shorter column

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43
Q

constant pressure surfaces of cooler air will be ____ in altitude than those of warmer air

A

lower

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44
Q

Height contours run ____ to the pressure gradient

A

perpendicular

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45
Q

two other forces that effect winds besides PGF

A

Coriolis

Frictional force

46
Q

Coriolis deflects objects to the _____ in the northern hemisphere and the _____ in the southern

A

Right, left

47
Q

How does conservation of angular momentum explain Coriolis?

A

When mass moves closer to the axis of rotation, the angular velocity increase to conserve angular momentum

because of this, the Coriolis force is stronger near the poles and 0 at the equator

Coriolis force increases with an increase in speed

Coriolis only changes direction of a object, not its speed

48
Q

Definition of friction
Until what altitude is it relevant?

A

force of opposition that slows air in motion
- Initiated at the surface.
- Important for air within 1.5 km (1 mi) of the surface (the planetary boundary layer), and negligible aloft (the free atmosphere).
- Friction reduces wind 
speed, so it also 
reduces Coriolis force.

49
Q

An airplane is flying forward at constant speed. At a given moment the forces acting on the airplane are such that Thrust is balanced by Air Friction, but Lift is smaller than the Weight. How is the airplane motion going to respond?

A

Airplane will continue moving forward at the same speed, but will accelerate downward

50
Q

what causes PGF

A

differential heating at the poles

51
Q

True or False: Warmer atmosphere is deeper

A

True

52
Q

How does friction affect wind direction?

What about when there is no friction in the upper atmosphere?

A

Friction decreases the Coriolis force so that it is no longer in balance with PGF and so winds cross the isobars.

When there is no friction, winds are in geostrophic balance in the upper atmosphere. (gradient flow)

53
Q

evaporation rate is proportional to

A

the temperature of the liquid

54
Q

condensation rate is proportional to

A

the “amount of water vapor”

55
Q

does evaporation rate change over time?

A

no it depends only on temperature

56
Q

does condensation rate change over time?

A

condensation rate increases as number of molecules in the vapor form increase

57
Q

what is saturation?

A

when evaporation rate = condensation rate

58
Q

another word for amount of water vapor in the air

A

humidity

59
Q

two ways to meaure humidity

A

vapor pressure & mixing ratio

60
Q

vapor pressure

A

the portion of atmospheric pressure exerted by water vapor molecules

61
Q

mixing ratio

A

mass of water vapor in a unit mass of dry air (g/kg)

62
Q

If we raise the temperature, what happens to the saturation vapor pressure?

A
  • Evaporation rate increases
  • Need higher “humidity” for 
condensation rate to match 
evaporation rate

Therefore, saturation 
vapor pressure increases!

63
Q

why cant relative humidity be used to compare humidity of two different locations?

A

it is temperature dependent, somewhere with a higher temp seems to have much less humidity just because its saturation vapor pressure is higher

(RH= Vapor pressure/saturation vapor pressure)

64
Q

highest relative humidity occurs during what part of the day?

A

morning, coolest times of the day

65
Q

dew point temp definition

A

temp at which air must be cooled to reach saturation (without changing pressure)

66
Q

Processes that cause saturation (3)

A
  1. The addition of water vapor
  2. Cooling the air to dew point (most clouds)
  3. Mixing cold air with warm moist air
67
Q

what conditions are necessary in order for homogeneous nucleation to occur? Why?

A

requires supersaturation, relative humidity of 400%

The curvature of the molecule

68
Q

What happens during heterogeneous nucleation?

A

water vapor molecules adhere to a solid surface (hygroscopic aerosols) on a condensation nucleus (cloud condensation nuclei AKA CCN)

69
Q

what makes ice molecules so rare in the atmosphere? Examples of nuclei?

A

They have to have a six sided structure for the molecules to bond to
examples: Clay, ice fragments, bacteria

70
Q

at what temperature do ice nuclei become active?

A

below -4 degrees

71
Q

Definition of diabetic processes

A

changes in temp caused by heat transfer into or out of parcel

72
Q

Adiabatic processes

A

changes in temp caused by expansion or contraction due to changes in pressure (no heat transfer)

73
Q

Explain adiabatic change in temp with the ideal gas law

A

we suppose that pressure is constant, so if air parcel expands it means that density decreases and that means temp must increase even if no heat is added

keep in mind the case is different when warm air rises, expands and cools because in that case the pressure is changing too

74
Q

DALR vs SALR

A

10 degrees celsius/km vs 5 degrees celsius/km

why? Condensation releases latent heat

75
Q

explain how the santa ana winds form

A

high pressure system over the great basin, air that flows down is warmed by adiabatic compression

temp increases reduce RH (by increasing saturation vapor pressure)

76
Q

Mechanisms that lift air (4)

A
  1. Orographic lifting
  2. Frontal lifting
  3. Surface convergence
  4. Convection
77
Q

How does dew form?

A

surface air becomes saturated and condensation forms on objects acting as condensation muclei

78
Q

How does frost form?

A

surface-air saturated when surface temps are below freezing (deposition occurs)

79
Q

What is another name for frozen dew?

A

Black ice

80
Q

What is fog and how does it form?

A

Surface cloud, 3 ways it happens: when air cools to the dew point, has moisture added, or when cooler air is mixed with warmer moist air

81
Q

What type of fog occurs in san Francisco?

A

Advection fog, which occurs when warm humid air from the ocean runs over cooler sea and ground surface air

82
Q

why does warm air rise?

A

because it is less dense than the surrounding air

83
Q

how do we explain the fact that warm air rises with the idea gas law?

A

if pressure in an air parcel is equal to its environment, that means if it has a higher temperature, the density must be lower

84
Q

What are the three states of equilibrium for buoyancy?

A

stable “it goes back”
indifferent or neutral “it stays”
unstable equilibrium “it moves away”

85
Q

what is an inversion? how do they correct unstable equilibrium?

A

When air becomes warmer as you go up in altitude. In the stratosphere, the temp rises with altitude, so even warm parcels whose temp exceepds the ELR are met with higher temps in the stratosphere.

86
Q

which changes when you go to the moon, kilograms or pounds?

A

Pounds because Weight is affected by gravity whereas kilograms are just a measure of mass

87
Q

due to the __________ of air, there is MORE or LESS atmospheric mass at lower altitudes?

A

compressibility, more

88
Q

At sea level, air density is about

A

1.2kg/m3

89
Q

in the US, pressure is measured in ______

A

millibars

90
Q

At sea level, air pressure is about

A

Sea level pressure is 1013 mb

91
Q

At higher altitudes, you have to travel farther or less far to experience the same pressure change ?

A

Pressure falls rapidly near the surface and more slowly up higher

92
Q

Pressure falls by ___ for every ___ of altitude

A

50%, 5kg

93
Q

The troposphere contains ____% of the mass of the atmosphere

A

85%

94
Q

Where does the troposphere end?

A

Depends on the average temp

95
Q

Warming a pot of water is an example of which type of heat transfer?

A

Convection

96
Q

True or false: The atmosphere can undergo forced convection in the absence of buoyancy

A

true, thanks to the wind

97
Q

Major changes in temp over short distance is often due to the presence of ____

A

fronts, represented by blue and red banners on map

98
Q

What are atmospheric rivers?

A

Atmospheric rivers are relatively narrow regions in the atmosphere that are responsible for transporting large amounts of water vapor over long distances

In class we looked at satellite measurements of atmospheric humidity (water vapor)

99
Q

Rising or falling air and clouds in the low-pressure regions (associated with weather in general)
High-pressure areas correlate to rising or falling and clear skies

A

rising in low pressure, falling in high pressure

100
Q

Vertical vs horizontal pressure gradients

A

Pressure gradients are generally small, about 5% difference in pressure for inside of a hurricane vs outside the storm

Vertical pressure gradients:
On average 600 times greater than the extreme horizontal pressure gradient associated with a hurricane

101
Q

difference in pressure between isobars

A

4mb

102
Q

What has a greater effect on vapor pressure: density change or temp change?

A

Temp influences are smaller than density changes, vapor pressure follows changes in density or abundance of molecules rather than temp

103
Q

PGF equation

A

PGF = difference in pressure /(divided by) distance (between isobars)

104
Q

vertical velocities much smaller than the horizontal velocities. How is this so?

A

Vertical PGF is in balance with gravity
Balance between the vertical PGF and the gravitational force: hydrostatic balance

105
Q

Clouds are formed by ________ processes while fog is formed by ________

A

adiabatic, diabatic

106
Q

lifting condensation level

A

Altitude at which condensation happens because air parcel rises high enough and cools sufficiently (because expansion lowers its temp to the dew or frost point)

107
Q

Radiation fog vs Advection fog

A

Radiation Fog: when the nighttime loss of longwave radiation causes cooling to the dew point

Advection fog: when warm, moist air moves horizontally over a cooler surface (warmer air flows from a region of warmer water over a cold ocean current like in San Francisco)

108
Q

true or false: For curved water surfaces, the evaporation rate is lower?

A

false, the evaporation rate is greater

Highly curved droplets of pure water require relative humidities in excess of 100% to keep them from being evaporated away

109
Q

What are 4 mechanisms that lift air to create clouds?

A
  • orographic lifting
  • frontal lifting
  • convergence
  • localized convective lifting due to buoyancy
110
Q

Explain orographic uplift

A

forcing air above a mountain barrier

Upward displacement of air leads to adiabatic cooling and possible cloud formation

On the other side of the mountain, air descends the slope and warms by compression to create a rainshadow (area of lower precipitation)

111
Q

explain frontal lifting

A

displacement of one air mass over another

Usually temperature changes are gradual
However, there are also fronts– transitional zones where great temperature differences occur across relatively short distances

Not like vertical walls, instead, slope gently

Airflow along fronts causes clouds to form in two ways:

Cold front: Cold air advances toward warmer air and the denser air displaces the lighter warm air ahead of it

Warm front: warm air is forces upward in the same way that the orographic effet causes air to rise above a mountain barrier

112
Q

explain convergence

A

low level winds flow toward a location from multiple directions

Has to due with pressure differences

Horizontal convergence: Low pressure cell near the surface, winds in lower atmosphere converge on the center of the low from all directions, air rises and creates clouds through adiabatic cooling

113
Q

explain localized convection

A

lifting due to buoyancy

Lifting that results from heating air near the surface

Creates updrafts strong enough to form clouds and precipitation

Effect of buoyancy: can speed or slow the uplift begun by the orographic effect, frontal lifting and convergence

A&O (3 decks)

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