Midterm

Question 1

what factors does Earth’s surface temperature depend on?

Answer 1

1. Radiation from the sun
2. Earth’s reflectivity (albedo, 30%)
3. Warming provided by shifts in atmospheric composition (greenhouse effect)

Question 2

What is radiation from the sun?

Answer 2

Radiation from the sun is essentially energy that travels through space and reaches the Earth in the form of light and heat. This energy is crucial for life on Earth, as it provides warmth and powers photosynthesis in plants.

When this radiation hits the Earth’s surface, it warms it. However, not all of this energy stays on the surface. Some is absorbed and some is reflected back into space. The absorbed energy heats the Earth and is eventually re-radiated back into the atmosphere as infrared radiation, or heat.

Question 3

What is Earth’s reflectivity (albedo)?

Answer 3

Earth’s reflectivity, or albedo, is basically how much of the Sun’s light is reflected back into space without being absorbed. You can think of it like wearing a white shirt on a sunny day; the shirt reflects most of the sunlight and keeps you cooler compared to a dark shirt, which absorbs more light and makes you feel warmer.

The Earth’s surface has different colors and textures, like oceans, forests, ice caps, and deserts, each with its own albedo. Snow and ice, for instance, are very good at reflecting sunlight, which helps keep those areas cooler. Darker surfaces like oceans or forests absorb more sunlight and get warmer.

Question 4

What is warming provided by shifts in atmospheric composition (greenhouse effect)?

Answer 4

The warming provided by shifts in atmospheric composition, also known as the greenhouse effect, is like wrapping a blanket around Earth. Our atmosphere has gases in it, called greenhouse gases, which include carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor, among others. These gases act like the glass of a greenhouse, letting sunlight in to warm the Earth’s surface but then trapping some of the heat as it tries to escape back into space.

When the composition of the atmosphere changes, like when there are more greenhouse gases, the ‘blanket’ gets thicker. A thicker blanket means less heat can escape, which makes the Earth’s surface warmer over time.

Question 5

what are the main atmospheric components?

Answer 5

N2 (78.08% by volume),
O2 (20.95%),
water vapor (concentration is highly variable, from 0% to 4%),
trace amounts of CO2, O3, and other gases,
aerosols

Question 6

what are the aerosols?

Answer 6

Aerosols are tiny particles or droplets that are so small they can float in the air. Imagine when you use a spray can, the fine mist that comes out is similar to aerosols. These can be made of different things like dust, sea salts, volcanic ash, smoke from fires, and even tiny droplets from spray cans.

Aerosols are important because they can affect the weather and climate. For example, they can help clouds form; the water droplets in clouds actually form around these tiny particles. They can also reflect sunlight back into space, which can cool down the Earth’s surface. However, some aerosols can absorb heat and make the atmosphere warmer.

Question 7

what is the water vapor?

Answer 7

Water vapor is just water in its gas form. It’s what you see when you boil water and steam comes up, or the invisible moisture in the air when it feels really humid. Water vapor is also created when the Sun heats up water from oceans, lakes, and rivers, and it turns into an invisible gas that goes up into the sky.

Question 8

what are trace amounts of CO2, O3 and other gases?

Answer 8

CO2, or carbon dioxide, is one of these trace gases. Even though it’s only a small part of the atmosphere, it has a big job: it traps heat from the sun, which helps keep the Earth warm enough for us to live. This is part of the greenhouse effect.

O3, or ozone, is another trace gas. Ozone high up in the atmosphere acts like sunscreen for the Earth, protecting us from too much harmful ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun.

Question 9

What are variables and increasing gases in the last couple of years?

Answer 9

Nitrogen and oxygen concentrations experience little change, but carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and chlorofluorocarbons are greenhouse gases experiencing discernable increases in concentration.

Question 10

What is Planetary albedo for Earth?

Answer 10

30%

Question 11

what makes contribution into planetary albedo?

Answer 11

Clouds (20%): This means that clouds are responsible for reflecting 20% of the total sunlight that bounces back into space. Clouds can be very reflective, especially thick, fluffy ones, and they cover a large part of the Earth at any given time.

Earth’s Surface (4%): This is telling us that the actual ground, water, ice, and other surfaces of the Earth reflect about 4% of the sunlight that hits them back into space. Different surfaces have different reflectivities; for instance, ice and snow are highly reflective (high albedo), while forests and oceans are much less so (low albedo).

Scattering by Air Molecules (6%): The remaining 6% of the reflected sunlight is scattered back into space by the tiny molecules that make up Earth’s atmosphere. This is the light that gets bounced off in different directions as it hits the gases in the air, and some of it escapes back into space.

Question 12

Provide examples of albedo

Answer 12

Fresh snow (75-95%)
Clouds (30-90%)
Ice (30-40%)
Grassy fields (10-30%)
water (10%)
forest (3-10%)

Question 13

What are Milankovic cycles?

Answer 13

Milankovitch cycles are like Earth’s dance moves around the Sun, which change slowly over thousands of years and affect how much sunlight different parts of our planet receive.

Question 14

What three main types of Milankoovic cycles?

Answer 14

1. Orbit eccentricity - Earth’s orbit around the Sun isn’t a perfect circle, it’s more like an ellipse. About every 100,000 years, the shape of this orbit stretches out a bit and then becomes more circular again. When the orbit is more stretched, there’s a bigger difference in the amount of sunlight we get when we’re closer to the Sun versus when we’re farther away.
2. Axial tilt - Earth is tilted on its axis. This tilt changes between more tilted and less tilted about every 41,000 years. The more the Earth is tilted, the more extreme our seasons are because the Sun’s light hits different parts more directly or more at an angle.
3. Axial precession - Earth also wobbles like a spinning top. This wobble changes the direction Earth’s axis is pointing and cycles about every 26,000 years. This wobble can affect when in its orbit Earth experiences the seasons.

Question 15

Does Milankovic cycle is the reason of today’s climate change?

Answer 15

No

Question 16

What are the astronomical causes of climate change?

Answer 16

11-year and 206-year cycles: These are periods when the amount of sunspots (dark spots on the sun that are cooler than other parts) increases or decreases. Sunspots are associated with solar activity, which can affect the amount of energy the Earth receives from the Sun.

21,000-year cycle: This is about the wobble in the way Earth spins on its axis and the shape of its orbit around the Sun. It changes how sunlight is distributed on Earth’s surface, which can lead to climate changes over long periods.

41,000-year cycle: This refers to the slight changes in how much Earth is tilted on its axis. A greater tilt means more extreme seasons, and a smaller tilt means milder seasons.

100,000-year cycle: This is about changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit from more circular to more elongated and back again, which affects how much sunlight Earth gets.

Asteroid impacts: When a large asteroid hits Earth, it can throw up a lot of dust and particles into the air, blocking sunlight and causing the climate to change.

Question 17

What are the atmospheric causes of climate change?

Answer 17

Heat retention (Greenhouse effect): Gases like water vapor (as a gas, not droplets), carbon dioxide, and methane trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, which keeps the planet warmer than it would be otherwise.

Solar reflectivity: Things like clouds, volcanic ash, and ice caps can reflect sunlight away from Earth, which can cool down the planet’s surface.

Question 18

What are the tectonic causes of climate change?

Answer 18

Landmass distribution (Continental drift): Continents move around on Earth’s surface over millions of years. When there’s a large landmass at one of the poles, it can lead to the formation of ice caps and ice ages.

Undersea ridge activity (Sea floor spreading): This is when the ocean floors spread apart, creating more space on the ocean floor. This can change the volume of the oceans and affect the flow of ocean currents, which in turn can impact the climate.

Question 19

What is effective radiative forcing (ERF)?

Answer 19

This is a fancy term for changes in how much energy from the sun is kept by the Earth versus how much is sent back out into space. Changes in this balance can warm up or cool down the planet.

Question 20

What is the summary of the change in ERF graph?

Answer 20

Based on the graph you’ve provided, the most effective ERF (Effective Radiative Forcing) from 1750 to 2019 appears to be from carbon dioxide (CO2). This is indicated by the longest bar extending to the right, which shows the greatest positive value in watts per square meter (W/m²). The exact value is not clear without seeing the specific numbers, but it’s evident that CO2 has the largest influence on radiative forcing, contributing to an increase in Earth’s temperature.

The other factors also contribute to ERF but to a lesser extent than CO2. Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and halogenated compounds are significant contributors as well but with shorter bars than CO2, indicating a smaller forcing effect.

Aerosols appear to have a negative forcing (cooling effect), as their bars extend to the left. However, their impact is less than the warming effects of the greenhouse gases.

The total anthropogenic ERF, which is the combined effect of all human-related factors, shows a substantial positive forcing, reinforcing the dominant role of human activities in changing Earth’s climate.

Question 21

what does the Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction graph illustrate?

Answer 21

This graph is showing different scientific estimates of the average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere over the last thousand years or so. The temperatures are compared to a baseline, and this comparison is what’s called a temperature anomaly. If the line is above the zero line, it means the temperatures were higher than the baseline, and if it’s below, they were lower.

The different colored lines represent different studies or methods of estimating past temperatures. They all follow a similar pattern: a little bit of up and down variation over the centuries, then a noticeable rise as we approach the present day. This rise is especially sharp in the last 100-150 years.

Question 22

what does the graph “attributed temperature change relative to 1750” shows and what the key findings?

Answer 22

The graph illustrates the attributed temperature changes relative to the year 1750, factoring in various contributors such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), halogenated gases, ozone (O3), tropospheric aerosols, and other anthropogenic (human-caused) factors, along with natural factors like volcanic and solar activity. The black line labeled “Total anthropogenic” represents the total change in temperature due to human activities.

The key findings from the graph can be summarized as follows:

1. Increase in Global Surface Air Temperature: The graph shows a significant increase in global surface air temperature since 1750, with a particularly sharp rise in the last century.
2. Dominant Role of Carbon Dioxide: Among the factors contributing to temperature change, carbon dioxide (CO2) has the largest impact, indicated by the highest rising line on the graph.
3. Contribution of Other Greenhouse Gases: Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and halogenated gases also contribute to warming, each with a separate line indicating their individual impact.
4. Effects of Ozone and Aerosols: Ozone (O3) contributes to warming, while tropospheric aerosols have a cooling effect, shown by lines below the zero mark, indicating a decrease in temperature.

Question 23

what are the key greenhouse gas emissions distributions by economic sectors?

Answer 23

1. Electricity and Heat Production: This sector is the largest source of direct emissions, accounting for 25% of the total. (among them highest indirect emission are from Industry - 11%, and Buildings - 12%)
   2.Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU): This is the second-largest source, contributing 24%.
2. Industry: Direct emissions from industry represent 21%.
3. Transport: This sector is responsible for 14% of direct emissions.

Question 24

What is the Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC)?

Answer 24

It consists of about 190 governments that commission assessments performed by the international climate change science community on the state of human knowledge of climate and climate change

Question 25

What are 3 working groups of IPCC?

Answer 25

1. Climate science
2. Climate impacts and adaptation
3. Mitigation

Question 26

What are the key critique of IPCC?

Answer 26

Out of Touch: Some people think the IPCC isn’t as relevant as it could be because it mostly looks at natural science and tries too hard to avoid upsetting anyone or making political waves. They’re also trying to get everyone to agree, which can be very difficult.

Missing Social Science: The IPCC has been criticized for not including other social sciences like sociology, political science, and anthropology. They’ve mainly just focused on economics.

Political Science on the Sidelines: In the IPCC, there are groups (Working Groups II and III) that look at the impacts of climate change and ways to reduce emissions. But these groups hardly have any political scientists, which means they might be missing important perspectives.

Ignoring Public and Conflict: The IPCC doesn’t seem to talk much about how everyday people respond to climate policies or the chance that climate change could lead to wars. This is a big gap because these are real concerns.

‘Soft’ Evidence: Governments might be overlooking social science insights because they don’t see this type of evidence as solid or reliable, especially when it’s about complex human behavior and societal issues.

Stuck in a Rut: Criticism is also aimed at social sciences for sticking too closely to their own theories and models, which can be limiting. Plus, there are so many different theories that it’s hard to decide which ones to pay attention to.

Lack of Academic Positions: There aren’t many secure jobs (tenured positions) at top universities for political scientists who specialize in climate change. This makes it hard for these issues to get the research attention they might need.

Question 27

what are the total world energy consumption by source?

Answer 27

1. Fossil fuel (78.4%) among which the key are petroleum, coal, natural gas
2. Renewable energy (19%) among which the key is traditional biomass (burn of woods) and bio-heat
3. Nuclear (2.6%)

Question 28

what are the potential scenario for the world energy consumption by 2035?

Answer 28

1. Oil (29%)
2. Coal (27%)
3. Natural gas (23%)
4. renewables (14%)
5. Nuclear (7%)

Question 29

how and why there was a change in the rate of global primary energy demand (1900-2020)?

Answer 29

1. during the Spanish flu and the Great Depression, energy demand dropped quite a bit because fewer people were using energy during these tough times.
2. World War II saw an increase in energy demand, likely due to the war effort.
3. The oil shocks in the 1970s caused big changes too. The first one led to a decrease in energy demand, and then there was another big drop during the second oil shock.
4. The Global Financial Crisis in 2008-2009 also caused a decrease in energy demand, as businesses slowed down and people used less energy.
5. The very end of the graph shows a significant drop, which is probably due to the COVID-19 pandemic, as many industries slowed or stopped, and people stayed home, reducing the need for energy in transportation and industry.

Question 30

how and why there were changes in global energy-related CO2 emissions (1900-2020)?

Answer 30

1. During the Great Depression and World War II, there were some decreases in emissions because the global economy slowed down, and there were changes in industrial activities.
2. The “Second oil shock” led to a slight decrease in emissions as energy prices went up and people used less energy.
3. The “Financial crisis” in 2008-2009 also shows a decrease in emissions for similar reasons - economic slowdown led to less energy use.
4. The most recent bar, in red, shows a big drop in emissions. This is likely due to the COVID-19 pandemic when a lot of normal activities stopped or slowed down, leading to a significant reduction in energy use and therefore CO2 emissions.

Question 31

what are the key funding from charts of 2016 annual emissions and 1751-2016 cumulative emissions?

Answer 31

1. The first chart shows how much carbon dioxide (CO2) each region or country contributed to the global total in the year 2016. China was the largest emitter, responsible for 29% of global CO2 emissions that year. The USA was the second-largest, with 14% of the emissions.
2. The second chart shows the total amount of CO2 each region or country has emitted over the entire period from 1751 to 2016. The USA has contributed the most over this time, with 25% of cumulative emissions. China, while the largest annual emitter in 2016, has contributed 13% to the cumulative total, reflecting its more recent industrialization and economic growth.
3. Conclusions: The two charts together illustrate the shift in CO2 emissions over time, with the first chart showing a snapshot of one year (2016), while the second chart provides a historical perspective over the entire industrial era. The USA’s dominant slice in the cumulative chart contrasts with China’s larger share in the annual chart, highlighting the rapid increase in China’s emissions in recent decades.

Question 32

what is Paris Agreement?

Answer 32

The Paris Agreement is an international treaty on climate change. It was ratified by 174 countries, with the aim to address and mitigate the impacts of climate change. It intended to substitute the Kyoto protocol

Question 33

What the inspiration for the Kyoto Protocol

Answer 33

1. Common Pool Resource theory (Hardin and Ostrum)
2. Disarmament treaties of the 1970s
3. The Monreal Protocol of 1987

Question 34

what is ‘cap and trade’?

Answer 34

“Cap and trade” is like a game where there’s a limit (a cap) on the total amount of something bad, like pollution, that can be put into the air. Companies are given a certain number of permits that allow them to pollute up to a certain amount. If a company doesn’t use all of its permits because it pollutes less, it can sell its extra permits to another company that needs more. This trading creates an incentive for companies to pollute less, because if they do, they can make money by selling their permits. The overall goal is to gradually reduce pollution by making the cap lower over time.

Question 35

what is market failure?

Answer 35

Market failure is a concept within economic theory describing when the allocation of goods and services by a free market is not efficient. That is there exists another conceivable outcome where a market participant may be made better off without making someone else worse off. Market failures can be viewed as scenarios where individual’s pursuit of self-interest leads to results that are not efficient

Question 36

what was the goal of Kyoto protocol and what is the result?

Answer 36

goal: -5% of global emissions over 1990 baseline
reality: +25% increase in global emissions over 1990 baseline

Question 37

what are the key countries and their dynamics of CO2 emissions 1990-2012?

Answer 37

1. China’s line goes up really steeply, which means they’ve been producing more and more CO2 every year, much more than the others by 2012.
2. The United States (US) also has a high line, but it stays pretty level, which means their CO2 emissions haven’t increased much in those years.
3. The European Union (EU 27, which means 27 countries in Europe together) has a line that goes up a little and then down, suggesting they increased emissions for a while but then started to reduce them.

Question 38

what are key critiques of Kyoto protocol?

Answer 38

1. Reduction goals not strict enough
2. With no USA ratification the treaty couldn’t work
3. Key countries are not involved in the agreement: USA, Australia, Canada
4. The agreement is too expensive
5. No sanctions to those countries which don’t meet goals
6. No incentive for R+D in zero carbon technologies
7. No incentive for adaptation
8. Widespread fraud in the flexibility mechanism and outsourcing of emissions to Annex II and III countries

Question 39

what are the key differences of Paris agreement and Kyoto protocol?

Answer 39

1. Based on ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ - Each country sets its own goals for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Doubles adaptation fund and substitutes ‘Clean Development Mechanism’ with ‘Sustainable Development Mechanism’ - The Paris Agreement increases the money put into the adaptation fund, which helps countries deal with the effects of climate change.
3. Foments parallel initiatives like ‘Green Climate Fund’ or “green Bonds’ by World Bank for adaptation

Question 40

what are the main goals of Paris agreement?

Answer 40

1. Reduce global temperature rise to 2C by 2100
2. Maintain global food production while decarbonizing its production
3. Facilitate sustainable development initiatives in developing countries

Question 41

What are the key critiques of Paris Agreement?

Answer 41

1. Lack of leadership (USA)
2. Brexit - what will become of the EU Emission trading system
3. Loss of faith in ‘cap and trade’ because of poor results
4. Even if Paris is implemented it’s probable that temperature will rise by 3c, not 2c

Question 42

What is clean development mechanism projects?

Answer 42

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is a project-based mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol, established to promote clean development in developing countries. Here’s how it works in simple terms:

Projects that Reduce Emissions: CDM projects are meant to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries. These projects can be anything from building wind farms to creating more efficient energy systems in factories.

Earn Credits: When these projects successfully reduce emissions, they earn credits called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs). Each CER represents one tonne of CO2 (or its equivalent) that has been prevented from entering the atmosphere.

Sell Credits: Developed countries, or companies from these countries, can invest in CDM projects and in return, they get CERs. They can then use these credits to meet their own emission reduction targets, or they can sell them to others who need them.

Sustainable Development: Beyond just reducing emissions, CDM projects are also supposed to help the host country achieve sustainable development. This means they can bring additional benefits like creating jobs, reducing pollution, or conserving natural resources.

Question 43

What is The Forest Transition Model?

Answer 43

This paragraph talks about the Forest Transition Model (FTM), which suggests that as countries get richer, mainly through industrialization and urban development, they start to restore their forests after a period of decline. This happens because wealthier societies can afford conservation and might shift their agriculture to other countries. The paragraph also mentions that forest recovery has been linked to efforts to fight climate change because growing forests can absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, which is considered a cost-effective way to reduce greenhouse gases. While the model is based on experiences from Europe and Asia, it’s noted that it may not apply everywhere, especially in countries that continue to expand their agriculture. Some studies have questioned this model, but it’s generally accepted that forests play a key role in controlling CO2 levels.

Question 44

what is terrestrial carbon store-houses?

Answer 44

A terrestrial carbon storehouse is like a big natural storage space on land where carbon is kept. Imagine forests, soil, peat bogs, and other land-based ecosystems as big sponges that can soak up carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air. Plants, for example, take in CO2 and use it to grow, locking the carbon into their wood and leaves. Soils also hold a lot of carbon in the form of decomposed plant and animal material. This storing of carbon is super important because it helps balance the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere, which affects our planet’s climate.

Question 45

what are the differences of carbon tax vs Cap and trade?

Answer 45

1. Predictable: Cap and trade price fixation volatile, carbon tax more predictable
2. Easier to implement: easy to legislate
3. Transparent: cap and trade process very opaque
4. Less manipulable: emissions trade can be manipulated by few influencing actors
5. Applicable to all economic sectors: can be targeted by ‘diffuse’ emissions
6. Progressive: cap and trade ‘non progressive’, carbon tax potentially progressive

Question 46

What is Re-conceptualizing climate change as a security dilemma?

Answer 46

A security dilemma with regard to climate change emerges when a given political system is trapped in double-bind reasoning. If a nation-state chooses to do nothing about climate change, a deteriorating environment will almost certainly lead to a national security crisis. If, however, the nation-state decides to act unilaterally against climate change, it is perceived to lose economic competitiveness with regards to other nation-states and thus its national security would be undermined

Question 47

What is the solution to Re-conceptualizing climate change as a security dilemma?

Answer 47

The idea of investing in research and development (R&D) into clean, zero-carbon technologies through military procurement is like saying, “Let’s use the military’s way of buying and developing new technology to create environmentally friendly options.” The military often has a big budget and the ability to quickly develop advanced technologies. So, if they focus on creating tech that doesn’t add CO2 to the atmosphere (which is what we mean by zero-carbon), it could lead to major breakthroughs in how we all use energy.

In simple terms, this solution suggests using the military’s resources and systems to quickly and effectively create new clean energy technologies that help tackle climate change.

Question 48

What is the biggest radiative forcing component, according to this graph, for climate change?

Answer 48

CO2, other mixed gases, ozone, stratospheric water vapor, contrails and aviation induced cirrus

Question 49

What are the main drivers of tropospheric ozone pollution leading to climate change?

Answer 49

wildfires, diesel engines

Question 50

what is stephan bolsman law?

Answer 50

we can calculate the effective temperature of the Earth TE by equating the energy received from the Sun and the energy transmitted by the Earth, under the black-body approximation