Midterm Flashcards
Study of exogenous clinical compounds that profoundly influence bodily functions, either in a deleterious way or for therapeutic benefits
TOXICOLOGY
enables physicians to adjust and optimize the dosage on an individual basis
Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM)
identify the offending drug/s (what function)
Identification of drugs in acute intoxication
establish diagnosis, assess level of intoxication, suggest course of therapy (what function)
Identification of drugs in acute intoxication
pre-employment and medico-legal cases (what function)
Urine testing for drugs of abuse
4 areas : CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY LABORATORY
- drugs of abuse
- therapeutic drugs
- environmental carcinogens
- toxins
Test animals are used
-Direct administration: ingestion, application to the skin, inhalation, gavage, etc.
-Indirect: test animal is exposed to the substance in its environment (H20 or air)
Toxicity is measured as clinical “endpoints”:
- Mortality (death)
-Teratogenicity (cause birth defects)
-Carcinogenicity (cause cancer)
-Mutagenicity (cause changes in the DNA)
-Received regular maintenance doses of the drug for about five half-lives of the drug (OPTIMAL TIME FOR BLOOD SPECIMENS)
Steady state concentration
For most orally taken drugs (OPTIMAL TIME FOR BLOOD SPECIMENS)
Just before the next dose
-Shortly after receiving the drug
- For patients who exhibit toxic symptoms
(OPTIMAL TIME FOR BLOOD SPECIMENS)
Peak or post-dose level
TECHNIQUES FOR DRUG ANALYSIS
•Immunologic
- Enzyme immunoassay systems
- Fluorescence immunoassay
- radioimmunoassay
TECHNIQUES FOR DRUG ANALYSIS
•Chromatographic
-HPLC
-GLC
-TLC
TECHNIQUES FOR DRUG ANALYSIS
•Spectrophotometry
-Visible spectrum, ultraviolet spectrum and fluorescence
–Serum + antibody + enzyme- labelled drug + substrate
ENZYME MULTIPLIED IMMUNOASSAY TECHNIQUE (EMIT)
Measured enzyme activity of EMIT
drug concentration
More rapid than RIA
ENZYME MULTIPLIED IMMUNOASSAY TECHNIQUE (EMIT)
1st homogenous Enzyme Immunoassay
ENZYME MULTIPLIED IMMUNOASSAY TECHNIQUE (EMIT)
most useful; less likely to be affected by serum constituents (in EMIT)
MDH (Malate dehydrogenase) & G-6-PD (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase)
Measures drugs (mg/L) & drug metabolites in biological fluids
EMIT
Some drugs detected in EMIT
Cocaine & metabolites, cannabinoides, opiates & barbiturates
Drug to be measured is the hapten
ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA)
Specific antibodies bound to a solid state carrier
ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA)
Separation of the bound drug from the unbound
ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA)
Digoxin and digitoxin tests
ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA)
Rodenticides, weed killers, insecticides
Arsenic
Interacts w/ enzyme SH (sulfhydryl) groups > disrupts multiple metabolic systems
Arsenic
Acute fatal dose of arsenic
120 mg
Toxicity manifested w/in the first hour : GI symptoms (diarrhea)
Arsenic
Analysis of urine, hair and nails: Ion Emission Spectroscopy
Arsenic
Treatment for Arsenic
- Gastric lavage or emesis
- Dimercaprol or BAL
- Hemodialysis
Acute poisoning common in young children
Iron
Toxic amount of Iron
> 30mg/kg
Once absorbed, removal is difficult
Iron
Hepatic cell damage, shock, lactic acidosis
Iron
initial manifestation of Iron
Vomiting
others: Severe gastroenteritis, melena, abdominal pain and hematemesis
Diagnosis of Iron
• Serum iron concentration
• TIBC (Total Iron Binding Capacity)
Treatment of Iron
- Supportive treatment
- Emesis or gastric lavage
- Chelation therapy: deferoxamine
Forms of Mercury
- Elemental or metallic: toxic when inhaled
- Mercurous/ Mercuric: salt form
- Alkyl mercury: environmental pollutants
Acute toxicity of Mercury
24 hr. urine levels
Chronic toxicity of mercury
hair analysis
Treatment of mercury
• Treatment: gastric lavage or emesis
- Dimercaprol and succimer
Organic and inorganic _____: highly toxic
lead
Interacts with -SH, -COOH & PO4 in proteins (e.g. enzymes)
lead
effect CNS (Central Nervous System) and PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)
lead
introduce in the body by Inhalation or ingestion
lead
Fatal dose of lead
0.5mg absorbed/day - chronic toxicity
0.5 g absorbed - acute toxicity
Acute toxicity: Signs and symptoms of lead
—CNS symptoms:
Encephalopathy (enlargement of brain), convulsions, stupor
—GI symptoms: colic
Chronic toxicity of lead
Accumulation in blood, soft tissues and bone
Low-level exposure of lead
ADHD & decrease in I.Q
Characteristic of lead
“wrist drop or foot drop” manifestation
LEAD TOXICITY
•Bone - 96% of burden
- Half-life of lead in bone is 32 years mas madami
- Reservoir for endogenous intoxication
•Lab. Diagnosis of lead
•basophilic stippling in RBCs
• gama ALA in urine
Diagnosis of lead
• AAS
•Anode stripping voltametry.
Treatment of lead
•Supportive
• Gastric lavage
• Dilute MgSO4 or Na2SO4
•Chelating agents: dimercaprol, calcium disodium acetate & succimer
esters of H3PO4 or thiophosphoric acid
•Organophosphates
synthetic derivatives of carbamic acid
•Carbamates
• Widely used as pesticides
•Interfere with neurotransmission
•Carbamates
•Inhibit acetylcholinesterase: ORGANOPHOSPHATE AND CARBAMATES
hydrolyzes acetylcholine after it has effected an action potential
excitatory neurotransmitter of ORGANOPHOSPHATE AND CARBAMATES
•Acetyl choline
Signs and Symptoms of ORGANOPHOSPHATE AND CARBAMATES
- Parasympathetic manifestations: salivation, lacrimation, urination and defecation
Autonomic manifestations of ORGANOPHOSPHATE AND CARBAMATES
-Muscular weakness, tachycardia, hypertension
CNS manifestations of ORGANOPHOSPHATE AND CARBAMATES
-Confusion, slurred speech, ataxia, convulsions
Diagnosis of ORGANOPHOSPHATE AND CARBAMATES
• Assay of cholinesterase activity
Treatment of ORGANOPHOSPHATE AND CARBAMATES
- Respiratory support
-Gastric lavage or emesis
-Atropine
-Pralidoxime (organophosphate)
aromatic compounds produced in cigarettes and in exhaust of engines → lung cancer
Benzopyrene
preservative of red meat → colon cancer
Nitrites
produced by Aspergillus; hepatocellular carcinoma
Aflatoxin
benzene → acute leukemia
Aromatic hydrocarbon
angiosarcoma
Vinyl chloride
multiple malignancies
Benzidine dyes
lung cancer and mesothelioma
Asbestos
used in gas chamber
Hydrogen cyanide
floor cleaner
Ammonia
industrial solvent
Toluene
white ant poison
arsenic
lighter fuel
butane
insecticide
DDT
paint stripper
acetone
Benzopyrene
pyrene
moth balls
Naphthalene
car batteries
Cadmium
car exhausts
Carbon monoxide
known cancer causing substance
Vinyl chloride
Any substance that produces physiological or psychological change within a short period of time after ingestion of a specified dose
Working Definition of a Drug
When an individual becomes strongly attached to a drug
Nature of Drug Dependence
Dependency is subdivided into two categories
physiological and psychological
- The body continually needs to have the drug
- A person experiences sickness if drug is discontinued
Physiological Dependence
- A person develops an uncontrollable “craving” (mental or emotional need) for a drug
- The craving is a desperate need to continue
Psychological Dependence
drug of abuse
any substance that is used for some purpose (w/ a desirable effect) other than that intended.
-the possession or supply is restricted by law because of its potential harmful effect on the user.
-Such drugs are known as controlled or scheduled substances.
•According to the WHO, scheduled drugs are ‘abused’ rather than ‘misused’. T or F
T
Drugs of abuse may or may not lead to physical or ‘psychological dependence’, a term used by the WHO in preference to ‘addiction’ . T OR F
T
taken as painkillers (analgesic)
Narcotic Drugs
taken to increase mental and physical energy
Stimulants
taken to change one’s mental state
Hallucinogens
taken to dull one’s senses, to reduce anxiety, or induce sleep
Depressants, Hypnotics, & Tranquilizers
taken to enhance one’s enjoyment of a party or other social activities
Club Drugs
taken to build muscles, endurance, or enhance athletic performance
Performance Enhancing Drugs
Derived from Papaver somniferum
Opiates or Narcotic Drugs
produced from the drying resin of unripe capsules of the opium poppy
Opium
Use of Opiates or Narcotic Drugs
treatment of GIT pain & diarrhea for infants
are psychologically addictive drugs; withdrawal causes severe physiological symptoms
Opiates
1° active drug in opium
Morphine
word comes from the Greek word “Morpheus”
Morphine
Uses of morphine
analgesic, light anesthetic or sedative
Mode of administration of morphine
Intravenous
Street Names of morphine
M, dreamer, emma, emsel, pulbos
2nd most abundant component; strong painkiller and cough suppressant
Codeine
Street Name of codeine
Schoolboy
white powder (diamorphine HCI & minor amounts of opium alkaloids)
SEA
brown powder (diamorphine base, opium-derived alkaloids & adulterants)
SWA
is treated to extract the morphine & the extract is acetylated with Acetic anhydride to produce diamorphine
raw opium
Mode of administration of diamorphine
Injection
site of injection for diamorphine
Inside of arm (beginners - middle biceps to middle of forearm)
Arm toward the back of the hand
• Feet, legs, thighs & groin
other site of injection for diamorphine
• veins of the neck
• under the tongue
• Breast (for females)
• Dorsal veins of the penis (for males)
CLUES: Needle tracks & sclerosing of veins
pharmacologically related to heroin
Methadone
Used for treatment of heroin addiction
Methadone
relief of moderate pain
Propoxyphene (Darvon)
Abused stimulants
Amphetamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine
is the drug most commonly produced in clandestine labs
Methamphetamine
Resemble epinephrine & norepinephrine
AMPHETAMINE & METHAMPHETAMINE
Used for the treatment of obesity
AMPHETAMINE & METHAMPHETAMINE
Common adulterants for Amphetamine:
—Caffeine (increase stimulant effect or mask low levels)
—Sugars (e.g. lactose) used as diluent
Normally produced as amphetamine sulfate, hydrochloride or phosphate
More commonly abused in Europe
AMPHETAMINE
Produced as methamphetamine hydrochloride
More popular in North America and Japan
METHAMPHETAMINE
- derived from genus Erythroxylum
COCAINE
sniffed through the nose (snorting”)
Cocaine HC
- base form; vaporized by heat in a pipe and inhaled
“Crack”
Local anaesthetic, vasoconstrictor & powerful psychostimulant
cocaine
- Cause a significantly altered mental state, often including hallucinations
- Marijuana is one of the oldest
HALLUCINOGENS
- Cause a significantly altered mental state, often including hallucinations
- Marijuana is one of the oldest
HALLUCINOGENS:
PHENCYOIDINE ROD: Street Names
Angel Dust, Angel Hair, Crystal, Keeler Weed
Used as surgical anaesthetic during World War I (patented by Parke-Davis in 1957 as “Sernyl”)
PHENCYOIDINE ROD
Side-effects of PHENCYOIDINE ROD
delirium, paranoia, hallucinations & euphoria
Very popular as a drug of abuse in the 1960s & 1970s (hippy movement”)
LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD)
starting material; derived from rye ergot fungus
Lysergic acid
Refers to all parts of the plant Cannabis sativa L., except the seeds & mature woody stalk material
MARIJUANA (HERBAL CANNABIS)
major psychoactive agent of MARIJUANA (HERBAL CANNABIS)
Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
Effects of marijuana
euphoria & heightened sensory awareness and distortion of time, sound and color, feeling of relaxation
- Cannabis resin made from the flowering tops of the plant
Hashish
Metabolites of Marijuana:
Delta-9-carboxy-THC
111-hydroxy-delta-9-THC
OTHER NATURAL HALLUCINOGENS
a. Peyote - bud of a particular cactus
• Main active ingredient: “mescaline”
b. Magic mushrooms: Genus Psilocybe
Active components: psilocin and psilocybin
- most abused depressant in the world
Alcohol
- physiologically active depressants, resulting in a physical & mental state similar to alcohol-induced intoxication
Barbiturates
Phenobarbital (long-acting)
›anticonvulsant
Amobarbital (intermediate-acting)
Pentobarbital (short-acting)
Thiopental (ultra-short-acting) > sedative-hypnotic
Barbituric acid
Condensation product of urea and matonic acid
Fat soluble: easily crosses BBB
Low doses: sedation, drowsiness and sleep
Higher doses : anesthesia
Very high doses : stupor, coma and death
Toxicity: depression, cyanosis, hypothermia, hypotension
Most are now rarely prescribed; illicit synthesis is rare
U.S.: Lorazepam & Alprazolam (typically abused); Flunitrazepam (banned)
BENZODIAZEPINES
- tranquilizer drug designed to relieve anxiety
Valium
- a major drug of abuse at raves and the club scene
Rohypnol or “roofies”
prepared by clandestine labs, or obtained legally from other countries
CLUB DRUGS:
most common drug encountered in “ecstasy” tablets
increase in secretion & inhibition of re-uptake of serotonin, dopamine & norepinephrine in the brain
METHYLENEDIOXYMETHAMPHETAMINE (MDMA) - “love drug”
causes euphoria, a feeling of empathy, increased energy and tactile sensation
MDMA
Short-term health risks: MDMA
hypertension, hyperthermia & dehydration
Long-term effect: MDMA
severe depression due to permanent disruption of serotonin production in the CNS
Synonyms: Sodium oxybate, gamma OH, Somtomax, “GHB” and liquid ecstasy
acts as a CNS depressant and hypnotic; chemically related to GABA
Gained notoriety for its use in drug-facilitated sexual assault
GHB (gamma hydroxybutyrate) and analogues
- anesthetic and animal tranquilizer; causes anterograde amnesia
Ketamine
have been implicated in cases of drug-facilitated sexual assaults “date-rape” drugs
Rohypnol, GHB, and ketamine
The first drug controlled because of their abuse by athletes were
anabolic steroids
promote cell growth resulting in growth of muscle tissue and sometimes bone size and strength
Anabolic steroids
SCHEDULE OF DRUGS
- I - for research only; no approved medical use
- II - Rx drugs; special prescription; unrefillable
-I and II: high potential for abuse - III and IV - available by prescription;
- may have 5 refills in 6 months
- V - Over the Counter (OTC)
Schedule
× Schedule I
• Marijuana
• Hashish
• Heroin
• LSD
× Schedule II
Opium
• Cocaine
• Amphetamine
Methamphetamine
Schedule III
Phenobarbital
• Diazepam
Anabolic steroids
OTHER COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS
- Nicotine - cigarettes, tobacco
- Ethyl alcohol - liquor, beer, wine
- Dextromethorphan
- cough and cold medications - Inhalants
- solvents (paint thinners, gasoline, glues), gases (butane, propane), nitrites
Republic Act No 9165: June 7,2002
- Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002
- repealed Republic Act No 6425 (Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972)