Midterm

Question 1

What is communication?

Answer 1

The relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response. An act of communication has three parts: creating the message, the message’s characteristics, and the interpretation of the message and the response

Question 2

Name at least two ways that people can get a message across

Answer 2

Speaking (Verbal Communication), which can happen in a variety of settings such as interpersonal, family/groups, organizations, public/mass communication.

Shared expressions like sounds (sighing) or facial expressions.

Question 3

What are two parts that messages have? Explain both.

Answer 3

Content Level - The level of communication that addresses the topic

Relationship Level - Level of communication that addresses how people think and feel about each other.

Question 4

How do the two levels of communication differ from each other?

Answer 4

The content level solely looks at what the message is about while the relationship level is focused on each person and their feelings and thoughts.

Question 5

Theories are what? What does that mean?

Answer 5

Theories are a set of systematic, informed hunches.

This means that theories are a set of observations and evidence that explains how things work, it is an educated guess based on evidence.

Question 6

True or False: Every message has a single meaning

Answer 6

False: Messages are polysemic, which means , they may have different meanings that can change over time.

Question 7

True or False: The meaning of messages is static over time.

Answer 7

False: Messages MAY become static over time due to differences in context, people, or words may have different meaning from when the message originated.

Question 8

True or False: Theories should be testable.

Answer 8

True: Theories should be testable, they can change over time, hence why it is important to continuously test to see if they are still applicable.

They also allow us to examine the similarities and differences between them.

Question 9

Define Epistemology

Answer 9

The study of the origin, nature, method, and limits of knowledge.

Question 10

What is epistemologies relevance in the field of communication.

Answer 10

It’s relevant because the interpretive scholars claim truth is socially constructed through communication and language.

Question 11

How do objective scholars (i.e., behavioral scientists) understand the concept of truth?

Answer 11

Objective scholars believe truth can be arrived at through unbiased observation.

Question 12

How do interpretive scholars understand the concept of truth

Answer 12

Interpretive scholars believe there are many truths and this depends on lived experiences and contextual elements.

Question 13

How do theoretical purposes (goals) differ between objective and interpretive scholars

Answer 13

Objective scholars / theories try to create generalizable explanations and explain the process that lead to certain conclusions.

Interpretive scholars / theories try to create a guide towards explanation and explain the motivations that lead people to come to certain conclusions.

Question 14

Objective theories must have predictive ability, what does that mean?

Answer 14

Predictive ability is being able to predict possible outcomes of human behavior using observation and evidence.

Question 15

Objective theories must be parsimonious, what does that mean?

Answer 15

Parsimonious refers to the idea of simplicity.

Question 16

What is the rule of parsimony (i.e., Occam’s razor)?

Answer 16

The idea when given two plausible explanations, the simplest should be accepted (Occam’s Razor).

Question 17

Objective theories must be falsifiable, what does that mean?

Answer 17

Falsification refers to the idea that hypothesis must be able to be proved wrong. (Karl Popper: do not look for confirmations; irrefutability is not a figure of a theory)

Question 18

Objective theories must be practical, what does this mean?

Answer 18

The theory is useful for everyday life. Theories that are helpful and influential allow people to use their insight and learn from their wisdom.

Question 19

Interpretive research must provide clarification of values, what does this mean?

Answer 19

The theorist who is doing the testing is defining their values and ideologies.

Question 20

Interpretive research must provide a new understanding of people, what does this mean?

Answer 20

Theorists are trying to find a new understanding of behavior by analyzing uniquely human activity and finding patterns.

Question 21

Interpretive research should have aesthetic appeal, what does this mean and what is the similar value to aesthetic appeal in objective theory?

Answer 21

Aesthetic appreciation refers to the attractiveness of a theory (not physically, but rather: is it simple? Does it make sense/explain the questions we have? Is it elegant? Is it catchy?)

While aesthetic appreciation is of value to interpretive theorists, the most similar value to objective theorists would be relative simplicity.

Question 22

Interpretive research should aim to reform society, what does this mean and why?

Answer 22

It should generate change and impact society. Because interpretive scholars believe many aspects of society are socially constructed, interpretive research can challenge what’s accepted by society, raise questions, and offer alternatives to currently accepted ideals

Question 23

Socio-Psychological Tradition

Answer 23

Uses systematic observations and controlled experiments to find quantitative variables that explain how people communicate and what causes certain reactions

Question 24

Cybernetic Tradition

Answer 24

Using systems and figuring out how information flows through those systems. Theorists don’t just look at technological systems, but also family systems and media systems such as social media.

Question 25

Rhetorical Tradition

Answer 25

Communication is interpreted not just in what is said, but how it is communicated. This tradition is a practical way to communicate, commonly used by politicians and public speakers.

Question 26

Semiotic Tradition

Answer 26

Meaning is shared through signs and symbols. Words are symbols that are culturally given because there is no natural association with them.

Question 27

Socio-Cultural Tradition

Answer 27

Language greatly influences how reality is perceived. Different grammatical structures and words can create a different meaning based on the language, making communication different between cultures.

Question 28

Critical Tradition

Answer 28

Communication is used as a source of power to maintain imbalances within society. These theorists critique society and focus on the injustices perpetrated by those in power.

Question 29

Phenomenological Tradition

Answer 29

Focuses on people’s personal experience and their interpretation of messages and events that happen. No one has the same life experience, so everyone things and interprets things differently.

Question 30

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Answer 30

How language structure may influence how a message is perceived which ties into socio-culture communication.

Question 31

Which tradition measures levels of communication, closeness of relationships, and commitment to the relationship?

Answer 31

The Social Penetration theory helps to explain the development of relational closeness. Comparison levels indicate satisfaction while comparison level of alternatives indicates the level of satisfaction with that partner (would a different relationship lead to better outcomes than the initial relationship)

Question 32

Which tradition is most objective?

Answer 32

The socio-psychological tradition is the most objective. This tradition emphasizes the importance of discovering set truths through careful, systematic observation. Scholars also look for cause-and-effect relationships that will predict how people communicate, making it an objective perspective.

Question 33

Which tradition is most interpretive?

Answer 33

Phenomenological tradition is the most interpretive. This tradition emphasizes the importance of people’s perception and their interpretation of their own experiences. An individual’s story is most important, making it an interpretive perspective.

Question 34

Scholars are bound by ethics and pragmatism, what do those words mean?

Answer 34

Ethics: Scholars have a moral obligation to consider what is right or wrong when testing theories

Pragmatism: An applied approach to knowledge, an understanding of an idea has practical actions associated with them.

Question 35

What does ‘meaning making’ mean?

Answer 35

The process in which a message is perceived and interpreted may be influenced by schemas.

Question 36

What is a symbol?

Answer 36

An arbitrary sign that has a learned meaning and value for people.

Question 37

What is the relationship between a concept and a symbol, use an example.

Answer 37

The relationship between a concept and a symbol is that people assign meaning to objects, actions, and ideas. For example, people might associate the word “puppy” with adorable, playful, and loving.

Question 38

Why do we say that symbols are co-created?

Answer 38

Groups of people come together to assign meaning to an item, hence creating a symbol.

Question 39

Why do we say that symbol use perpetuates the status quo?

Answer 39

The world around us is defined by the symbols we create.

Question 40

What is minding?

Answer 40

The inner dialogue people have in their minds.

Question 41

How does minding make humans different from animals?

Answer 41

Animals are unable to communicate symbolically and think reflectively while humans can do both.

Question 42

To explain the looking glass self, Mead says that we do not learn who we are through introspection. What does he mean by this? Make sure to explain the looking glass self in your answer.

Answer 42

The Looking Glass refers to the idea that we understand who we are based on how others see us. Introspection would refer to who we are when we are alone, but Mead suggests that our ability and how we relate to others defines the “self.”

Question 43

Mead explains a relationship between the “I” and the “Me.” What is the “I”? What is the “Me”?

Answer 43

The “I” is the subjective self and is the spontaneous, driving force that fosters all that is novel, unpredictable, and unorganized in the self. The “Me” is the objective self and the image of self seen when one takes the role of the other.

Question 44

What is the relationship between the “I” and the “Me?”

Answer 44

The relationship between the two is how people perceive themselves. Since there can be no self-concept without talk, the “I” is what people are truly like, while the “Me” is how people are seen by those around them.

Question 45

What is generalized other?

Answer 45

The generalized other is the composite person in our mind that we have an inner dialogue with.

Question 46

What are roles?

Answer 46

Roles are behavior and characteristics people are assigned. Humans are able to take the role of the other. For example, when kids role-play jobs, talk to imaginary friends, or just pretending to be other people.

Question 47

How does the generalized other lead to self-socialization?

Answer 47

The generalized other reflects what significant others in our life and broader society think and define what is acceptable, which then influences self-socialization to fit in with others in life based on the expectations of the generalized other.

Question 48

What communication phenomenon does social penetration theory focus on and how does it use an onion to describe a person’s personality structure?

Answer 48

The Social Penetration theory helps to explain the development of closeness in a relationship. It is compared to onion as a way to explain the several layers in which a relationship goes through in order to develop a close connection. These layers include levels of self disclosure (depth/breadth).

Question 49

Explain the difference between breadth and depth in terms of self-disclosure.

Answer 49

Breadth is the range of areas in an individual’s life over which disclosure takes place. This means breadth refers to how much an individual discloses about their life

Depth is the degree of disclosure in a specific area of an individual’s life. This means depth is how deeply they share about a specific subject

Question 50

Which layer represent breadth and which layers represent depth.

Answer 50

The layers that represent breadth are the outer layers, such as biographical data, dating, worldview, studies, taste, and preferences in clothes, food, and music.

The layers that represent depth are the inner layers, such as concept of self, deeply held fears and fantasies, and religious convictions.

Question 51

Which type (breadth / depth; outer/ inner) do you learn more of when starting a relationship?

Answer 51

When starting a relationship, you learn more of the outer, or breadth, layers.

Question 52

Describe the role of reciprocity in self-disclosure. Why is it problematic when there is unequal reciprocation?

Answer 52

When self-disclosure is reciprocated, it will lead to one person opening up when another person opens up as well.

Unequal reciprocation is when one person is opening up more than the other. This is problematic because it will leave both people feeling uneasy until the level of reciprocity is even.

Question 53

Describe three components of social exchange theory and how is this theory relevant to social penetration theory?

Answer 53

The Social Exchange Theory contains relational satisfaction, relational stability, and relational outcome. This is relevant to the social penetration theory because factors such as relational satisfaction and stability influences the relationship outcome.

Question 54

Explain why social exchange theory is described as “relationship economics” and how this helps explain the minimax principle of human behavior?

Answer 54

Social exchange theory is described as “relationship economics” because it involves both parties evaluating the perceived rewards and costs of interacting with one another.

This helps explain the minimax principle of human behavior because it states that people seek to maximize their benefits and minimize their costs.

Question 55

What is the comparison level of analysis and why does it matter for social exchange theory?

Answer 55

The comparison level of analysis is the threshold above which an outcome seems attractive in relationships.

It matters in the social exchange theory because if the relationship does not meet the threshold, the person will not open up to the other person to increase their degree of intimacy.

Question 56

What is the comparison level of alternatives (CL.alt) and How does CL.alt explain how a relationship will remain stable or become unstable?

Answer 56

CLalt refers to the idea of, “would an alternative relationship outweigh the positives in the current relationship?” and is determined by the number of other alternatives and quality of these alternatives.

The relationship remains stable if alternative options provide less satisfaction.

Question 57

Please explain why the researcher (Petronio) who developed Communication Privacy Management Theory chooses to use the term “disclosure of private information” rather than “self-disclosure.”

Answer 57

Petronio uses the term “disclosure of private information” rather than “self-disclosure” because a lot of the private information we share with others isn’t about ourselves. Also, Petronio’s phrase puts an emphasis on what is being disclosed and how the confidant handles the information.

Question 58

Why might choosing the term “disclosure of private information” rather than “self-disclosure” be important when it comes to negotiating a collective privacy boundary?

Answer 58

This choice is important when it comes to negotiating a collective privacy boundary because it is up to the confidant to decide what to do with the information they have received.

Question 59

Please explain the following three of the five personal privacy rules: Culture, Gender, and Motivation. Give one example situation for each type of privacy rule.

Answer 59

Culture - Different cultures have different levels of openness and disclosure. Ex. The United States is very individualistic so they won’t disclose things as fast as South American cultures that have high levels of openness.

Gender - Both men and women feel more comfortable opening up to a woman than to a man. Ex. In regards to sexual abuse, a women will be more comfortable talking to her friend who is a girl over her friend who is a boy.

Motivation - Our motivation determines how willing we are to reveal some private information about ourselves. Ex. Someone may reveal a secret when they find out the other person reveals they also have the same secret, the motivation of reciprocity.

Question 60

Please explain the following two of the five personal privacy rules: Context and Risk-benefit ratio with examples.

Answer 60

Personal Privacy rule “context” refers to the idea in which certain conditions that provoke feelings of safety for the discloser may encourage disclosure.

Risk-benefit ratio refers to the idea that secret keepers asses the potential outcome of revealing a secret (weighing the risks and benefits of revealing the secret)

Question 61

Boundary Ownership

Answer 61

Refers to the rights and responsibilities that co-owners of private information have to control its spread.

Question 62

Boundary Linkage

Answer 62

Refers to the alliance formed by co-owners of private information as to who else should be able to know.

Question 63

Boundary Permeability

Answer 63

Refers to the extent to which a boundary permits private information to flow to third parties.

Question 64

Emory tells his brother Tarek that he is going to skip school on Friday and take the bus to go to Cincinnati from Columbus with some friends. Tarek is Emory’s older brother and thinks that this could be a dangerous idea for a 13-year-old. Tarek tells his parents about Emory’s plan. What type of boundary turbulence was Tarek’s breach of information? List the other two types of boundary turbulence and give an example of each.

Answer 64

Tarek’s type of break was an intentional breach because he is revealing information that Emory would not want her parents to know but it was revealed for her safety.

A fuzzy boundary is when there is no recognized mutual boundary between the two parties which can result in the informant using their own privacy boundary which might not be the same as the revealer. An example is when someone brings in a friend for a doctor’s appointment, and the doctor reveals medical information that they did not want the friend to know about, but this boundary was not discussed beforehand.

Another boundary is a mistake when the informant accidently reveals a secret of another person. An example is when a doctor reveals information to someone over the phone, and someone else overhears the information, revealing the secret accidently.

Question 65

True or False: In a situation where an adopted child enters a family at the age of 4, you could observe the parents’ interaction with the child on the first day of the adoption and know which Family Communication Pattern the family fits into.

Answer 65

False, family communication patterns may vary based on factors such as structure, history and culture.

Question 66

if Luisa sits with her dad while he watches the local news report on an election, sees his reaction to a story, and then reacts the same way to the story when it is brought up at school, this would be a ___________ orientation.

Answer 66

Conformity Orientation.

Another example: A parent says no to their child when they ask to go to a party and when they ask why not, they simply say “Because I said so.” Parental authority is being emphasized here, making it a high conformity orientation example.

Question 67

If instead, Luisa sits with her dad while he watches the local news report, sees his reaction to a story, asks why he is reacting like he does to the story, and then her dad explains his reaction and asks her what she thinks about the story, this would be a ____________ orientation.

Answer 67

Conversation Orientation

Another example: A parent says no to their child when they ask to go to a party and when they ask why not, they say “Because it’s an unsafe environment and there will not be chaperones there. Why do you think you should be allowed to go?” Open discussion is being emphasized here, making it a high conversation orientation example

Question 68

Compare the differences and similarities between a protective family and a consensual family

Answer 68

A protective family is low in conversation orientation and high in conformity orientation, a consensual family is high in conversation and conformity orientation.

They both are high in conformity so they both have established rules in what is expected.

The difference is the protective family is not open to disagreement and having a conversation where point of views are discussed. A consensual family will have a discussion about each other’s perspectives and at least hear them out, but a protective family only believes in the familial hierarchy and the authority of the parents.

Question 69

Compare the differences and similarities between a laissez-faire family and a pluralistic family.

Answer 69

A laissez-faire family has low conversation and low conformity. Pluralistic families are similar in the sense that they contain low conformity but different in that there is higher conversation.

A laissez-faire family is not very involved in communicating with each other or making decisions together while a pluralistic family encourages conversation with each other, has clear expectations, and makes decisions together.

Question 70

Which two types of family patterns risked causing mental health concerns for children going into college?

Answer 70

Protective and laissez-faire families.

These types risk causing mental health concerns because in protective families, the children feel their parents are too involved, while children in laissez-faire families feel their parents don’t care.

Question 71

____________________, described as patterns, explains why people continue to experience the effects of their childhood family communication patterns into adulthood. Provide the three situations, as stated in our book and lecture, where research has found that adults are still affected by their childhood family communication patterns.

Answer 71

Family communication.

The workplace - children learn about authority and expectations as they grow up from their family and parents. In a workplace, the way they were taught to interact with authority as children will be reflected in their relationship with their boss. Usually it depends on whether they are willing to keep concerns about the workplace to themselves, likely in high conformity childhoods, or to voice them which low conformity childhoods will be more likely to do.

Political engagement - Children raised in consensual families are more likely to seek political information, share that information, and participate in the political process. Children in laissez-faire families are least likely to do this.

Future family generations - Different generations tend to use the same family communication patterns they were raised in, but it is possible for a generation to change their communication style when they know they don’t want to raise their children the way they were raised personally.

Question 72

What is the central finding of the media multiplexity theory?

Answer 72

The Media Multiplexity Theory refers to the idea that the stronger the relational tie we have with someone, the more media we use to communicate with them.

Question 73

What is a strong tie?

Answer 73

A strong tie is a relationship involving a large investment of time and emotional energy.

Question 74

What is a weak tie?

Answer 74

A weak tie is a relationship involving a small investment of time and emotional energy.

Question 75

What is the key strength of weak ties (and, inversely, the key weakness of strong ties)? What are bridging ties? How are they related to the strength of weak ties?

Answer 75

The key weakness of strong ties is they’re redundant when it comes to accessing information and resources. Meanwhile, the key strength of weak ties is their ability to access new information and resources.

Bridging ties are weak tie relationships that enable information and resources to pass between groups of people. They allow weak ties to use their strength of knowing new information and resources to pass to strong ties.

Question 76

Summarize the five propositions of media multiplexity theory

Answer 76

1 - The higher the number of mediums in media, the stronger the relationship is with that person. The more platforms used, the more they are communicating.

Question 77

True or False: Organizational Communication Theories embrace Classical Management Theory

Answer 77

False: Organizational Communication Refers to a companies internal and external communication (common goals, culture and climate, strategies) and reject classical management theory.

Question 78

What does “webs of significance” mean in the context of organizational communication?

Answer 78

That in order for an outsider to understand the culture of a workplace, they must discover the common interpretations that hold the web together. This includes the shared meanings, shared understandings, and shared sensemakings.

Question 79

Culture has to do with Shared Meaning, Shared Understanding, and Shared Sensemaking. How are these terms related to Symbolic Interactionism’s “Construction of Social Reality”?

Answer 79

These terms are related to the construction of social reality because how they are defined determines the reality that is created within the organization and how those in the organization want their reality to be

Question 80

Explain how ethnography differs from one-hour long, individual interviews and explain the difference between thick and thin descriptions in ethnography.

Question 81

amie tells her friend Pallavi that the organization she works at is like a zoo. Jamie’s description of her work as a “zoo” is a type of __________. Why does Jamie use this type of speech to explain to Pallavi the culture of her organization?

Answer 81

Metaphor

They help clarify what is unknown or confusing by equating it with an image that is familiar. In this case, Pallavi understands how chaotic and wild a zoo is, so Jamie uses that image to help Pallavi understand the culture of her organization.

Question 82

Name the three types of stories that are common in a workplace and give examples (1-2 sentences) for each type of story.

Answer 82

Corporate stories - carry the ideology of management and reinforce company policy. For example, the CEO of a company explains that he would do jobs that was below his pay grade like picking up the trash.

Personal stories - stories that employees tell about themselves related to their place within work. For example, an employee explaining how they deserve a raise because of how well they do the job.

Collegial stories - anecdotes about others in the workplace. For example, one coworker explaining how despite the other coworker believing how they should get a promotion, they believe that person should not because they lack basic social awareness.

Question 83

True or False: Rituals make it easier for new management to come into a workplace and change the culture.

Answer 83

False: Rituals are practices that are repeated and hold deeper meaning and significance. A workplace that holds rituals would be difficult for new management to make changes to due to the preexisting beliefs that workplace may hold.

Question 84

What does Social Judgement Theory focus on?

Answer 84

The perception and evaluation of an idea by comparing it with current attitudes.

Question 85

Explain the authors’ choice to use “latitude” to describe peoples’ attitudes rather than conceptualizing an attitude as a single point on a scale.

Answer 85

The authors’ choice to use “latitude” to describe peoples’ attitudes is intentional, as latitudes represent a zone, not just a single point on a scale.

Question 85

Latitude of Acceptance

Answer 85

Ideas that someone believes in reasonable and approves

Question 86

Latitude of Rejection

Answer 86

Ideas that someone sees as unreasonable and objects them

Question 87

Latitude of Noncommitment

Answer 87

Ideas that someone sees as neither reasonable or objectionable

Question 88

What is ego-involvement?

Answer 88

How involved with an idea we are

Question 89

How does low ego-involvement affect the latitudes? What does it mean to have high ego-involvement? How does this affect the latitudes?

Answer 89

An individual with low ego-involvement would have less attachment and attitudes towards an idea while someone with high ego-involvement would have strong attachment and attitudes towards an idea.

Someone with low ego-involvement would have a broader range of latitudes regarding an idea while someone with high ego-involvement would have a narrower range of latitude regarding the idea. For example, someone who has low ego-involvement regarding cars may view a Corvette as just as good as a McLaren while someone with high ego-involvement would strongly disagree and may view the idea as “wrong”

Question 90

Assimilation

Answer 90

Perceptual error whereby people judge messages that fall within their latitude of acceptance as less discrepant from their anchor than they really are. This would occur during the latitude of acceptance stage.

Question 91

Contrast

Answer 91

Perceptual error whereby people judge messages that fall within their latitude of rejection as farther from their anchor than they really are. This would occur during the latitude of rejection stage.

Question 92

What is a positive persuasive effect? How do you maximize positive persuasive effects?

Answer 92

A positive persuasive effect is a message that falled into the person’s latitude of acceptance, so they will slightly adjust their position towards the speakers.

To maximize the positive persuasive effect, the speaker needs to create a message that is furthest from the listener’s position but still falls within the listener’s latitude of acceptance or noncommitment.

Question 93

What is a negative persuasive effect?

Answer 93

A negative persuasive effect is when the message falls in the latitude of rejection and causes the boomerang effect where the listener to adjust their position away from what the speaker is advocating.

Question 94

What is ELM?

Answer 94

Elaboration Likelihood Model, the idea that we are motivated to elaborate on ideas in which we have high ego-involvement with

Question 95

What are the two ELM routes?

Answer 95

Central Route - Involves Message elaboration
(Example, Someone is presented with a complex argument that requires thought.)

Peripheral Route - Mental shortcuts to accept or reject a message based on cues.
(Example: A friend buying ice cream because they paid for yours last time, reciprocation.)

Question 96

What are the ELM Cue’s (Cialdini’s)

Answer 96

Reciprocation - “You owe me” Ex. When someone sends you a birthday card, you send them back one when it is there birthday

Consistency - “We’re always done it that way” Ex. You are more convinced to go to college because for as long as you have been alive, people have always gone to college right after high school

Social proof - “Everybody’s doing it” Ex. When a group of people are jaywalking during a red light, you are more likely to also do it because if they are also doing it, you are more safe

Liking - “Love me, love my ideas” Ex. If someone you like is trying to convince you to spend money on food, you are more likely to do it solely because you want them to like you as well

Authority - “Just because I say so” Ex. The president is voted because they have gained credibility, so when they are convincing the public of something, they are credible enough to believed

Scarcity - “Quick, before they’re all gone” Ex. If there is a small amount of shirts, people will want to get them before they are all bought

Question 97

What is motivation in the ELM?

Answer 97

The listener’s ability to process the information (personal relevance/need for cognition) and is relevant to ELM because motivation may influence whether the listener takes on a peripheral or central route towards the speaker’s message.

Question 98

What is objective elaboration?

Answer 98

Bottom-up thinking where facts are scrutinized without bias; seeking truth wherever it might lead

Question 99

What is biased elaboration?

Answer 99

Biased elaboration is top-down and includes comparing an argument to what you already know about the argument topic.

Question 100

True or False: The two ELM routes are mutually exclusive

Answer 100

True: The ELM routes are mutually exclusive. The central route and peripheral routes represent poles on a cognitive processing continuum that show the degree of mental effort a person uses when evaluating a message

Question 101

What is cognitive dissonance? What makes people do? How does it happen?

Answer 101

Cognitive dissonance is the distressing mental state caused by inconsistency between a person’s two beliefs or a belief and an action.

It makes people want to change either their behavior or their belief to avoid the feeling.

It happens through mental mechanisms like selective exposure, postdecision dissonance, and minimal justification

Question 102

How does selective exposure reduce dissonance?

Answer 102

Selective exposure is the idea that people do not seek out and actually avoid information that does not fit their understanding of the world. Friends and media act as buffers.

An example would be joining a student organization that closely aligns with your own values/beliefs rather than joining one that may go against your values/beliefs.

Question 103

What is post decision dissonance?

Answer 103

Strong doubts experienced after making an important, close-call decision that is difficult to reverse.

An example of this is how someone feels after signing the contract to buy a new car. They will think about if they made the right decision, if they bought the car for a good price, and if they bought a good model.

Question 104

How does the minimal justification principle influence dissonance

Answer 104

By giving the reward that will just be enough to elicit counter-attitudinal behavior, it will increase the level of dissonance that will motivate the person to change their behavior or action.

For example, instead of giving someone a huge reward for quitting smoking, you give them little incentives that will convince them enough to start but not enough to only have outward compliance, this forces them to internally want to stop smoking.