Midterm Flashcards
three roles of sports psychology
- teaching (increase awareness)
- research (advance knowledge)
- consulting (apply research to help people perform better)
what psychology is important for coaching?
positive psychology - so coaches focus on strengths of athletes to improve mental toughness and performance
when did sport psychology begin to grow in Canada
1960-1970s
where did the growth of sport psychology come from?
the establishment of new universities
independent variable
manipulated variable (CAUSE)
- causes a change in DV
dependent variable
a non-manipulated variable (OUTCOME)
- expected to change as a result of manipulating the IV
models vs. theories
- models are more restrictive in explanation compared to theories
- theories are more general than models
quantitative research (positivist)
focuses on numbers and variables, and assumes reality is objective
- based on philosophical assumptions about the nature of reality (ontology) and structure of knowledge (epistemology)
- uses deductive reasoning
- no confounds
qualitative research (constructivist)
focuses on understanding the meanings, uses non-numerical data
- assumes reality is subjective (people assign meaning)
- uses inductive reasoning
- confounds
mixed methods research
combined approach of using both quantitative and qualitative research
ontology
nature of reality/issues of existence, and the science of what is there that can be known?
espistemology
theory of knowledge
- origin, nature and limits of human knowledge
paradigms
a perspective, or set of ideas
- addresses three central questions:
1. ontological
2. epistemological
3. methodological
realism
external world exists independently of human perception
- facts and objective measures
relativism
external world exists as mental constructs
- based on interpretation
objectivist
emphasis on empirical evidence (objective truth)
- meaning is in objects
constructionist
emphasizes the role of humans in constructing knowledge through experience and interactions with the environment
- meaning is in humans’ construction of reality
- normative truth is NOT FIXED
subjectivist
an individuals own thoughts and opinions about things
- meaning is in the mind
types of epistemology
objectivist, constructivist, subjectivist
types of ontology
realism and relativism
methodology
addresses the ways in which inquiry can be carried out
- how do you find out knowledge?
evidence-based practice
uses best available research to inform clinical decision making and delivery
- must consider the CODE OF ETHICS
personality
systematic variation in the way people think, feel and behave
trait
a relatively stable quality that may represent a portion of one’s personality
- used to explain behaviour across time and situations
***MORE CONSISTENT
psychological states
momentary feelings and thoughts that change depending on situation and time
***ONLY MOMENTARY
Big Five Model
- openness to experience
- conscientiousness
- agreeableness
- extraversion
- neuroticism
sensation seeking
take multiple risks for the sake of such experiences
alexithymia
inability to identify one’s emotions and to describe these feelings
- more likely to participate in high-risk sports to compensate (try to feel)
three dimensions of an athletes desire to win
- competitiveness
- win-orientation
- goal-orientation
competitiveness
desire to strive for success
win-orientation
a focus of interpersonal standards and winning
(less healthy)
goal-orientation
a focus on personal standards - to improve yourself
two types of passion
- harmonious passion
- obsessive passion
harmonious passion
engaging in activity for the pleasure of the activity
(ex. me and volleyball)
- is in balance( harmony) with rest of individuals life
obsessive passion
uncontrolled urge to engage in activities because of external control or feelings of guilt - similar to addiction
(ex. if you are just involved in sport for reward or social status)
- conflict with rest of individuals life
mental toughness
set of positive characteristics that allow a person to cope with challenging situations and achieve goals
- takes time and practice of psychological skills
what do mentally tough people who encounter negative situations do?
- appraise situation as a challenge
- believe they have control over the situation
- have confidence they can overcome it
- have strong commitment to achieving their goals
perfectionism
very high performance standards combines with overly critical self-evaluations
2 dimensions of perfectionism
- perfectionistic striving
- perfectionistic concerns
perfectionistic striving
setting high performance standards and goals, and striving to achieve them
- less problematic and more positive outcomes
perfectionistic concerns
reflects aspects of negative social evaluation - excessive criticism, concerns over mistakes, and doubts about actions
- more problematic and negative outcomes
how do we measure personality?
- self-report questionnaires (big 5)
- behavioural assessments
- projective test
- interviews
- biological measures
- online and digital data
humanistic psychology
focuses on personal responsibility, human growth, personal striving, an individual dignity
self-actualization
attempts to fulfill one’s potential
hierarchy of needs
- self-actualization
- esteem needs
- social needs
- safety needs
- physiological needs
biological/evolutionary psychology
personality can be heritable/biological
interactionist approach
both personal and situational factors impact behaviour predictively
meta-analysis
summary of all the studies that exist in the area
- personality has a minor association with exercise
- exercise is positively associated with extraversion and conscientiousness, but negatively associated with neuroticism
extroverts vs. introverts in exercise
- extroverts may prefer group exercise programs
- introverts may prefer staying at home to garden
arousal
physiological and psychological activation that varies on a continuum from deep sleep to peak activation
- occurs from positive and negative events
anxiety
a negative emotion that is experienced when faced with a real or imagined threat
- elicited following an assessment of a specific situation (see if threatening)
cognitive anxiety
mental component of anxiety
- worried and concerns and reduced ability to focus
somatic anxiety
physical component of anxiety
- perceptions of body states = clammy hands, racing heart, or butterflies in the stomach
trait anxiety
person’s general tendency to perceive a situation as threatening or non-threatening
***personality characteristic - differs for individuals
state anxiety
anxiety that experiences at a particular moment in time and can change from moment to moment
types of state anxiety
cognitive and somatic
social anxiety (subtype)
occurs when people believe they will receive a negative evaluation from others
social physique anxiety (subtype)
occurs when people are worried about receiving a negative evaluation ABOUT THEIR BODIES from others
ex. some people may exercise more to improve their bodies for positive evaluations - others may not exercise to avoid situations in which others could evaluate their bodies
competitive anxiety (subtype)
occurs in competitive sport situations and is related to athletes’ worries that they may be evaluated negatively by others, with respect to their BODIES, PERFORMANCE, or SKILLS
interpretation of anxiety symptoms
- negative emotions do not always hurt performance
what two ways can anxiety be experienced as?
facilitative (positive) and debilitative (negative)
personal sources of anxiety
- gender
- experience and skill level
- trait anxiety
- self-confidence and self-presentational beliefs
- self-regulation strategies
elevations in the intensity of anxiety response are associated with…
1, being female
2. novice expertise
3. high trait anxiety
4. low self-confidence
5. negative or poor self-presentational beliefs
6. poor self-regulatory skills
7 use of self-handicapping strategies
self-presentation
process by which people attempt to monitor and control the impressions that other people form of them
self-presentational efficacy
confidence in one’s ability to present a desired image to others
ex. being an exerciser
self-handicapping
cause higher intensity levels of trait and state anxiety, but are viewed as facilitative for performance
environment based sources of anxiety
- temporal patterning
- exercise: the physical environment (mirrors and type of clothing)
- other people in the exercise environment (can increase anxiety)
anxiety-sport performance relationships models
- drive theory
- inverted-u hypothesis
- individuals zones of optimal functioning
- cusp catastrophe theory
drive theory
the more well leaned a task, the greater the arousal, the better the performance
- not well supported
inverted-u hypothesis
performance improves as arousal increases, but only to a certain point, then after that point increases in arousal lead to poorer performance
- only addresses physiological arousal and not anxiety
individuals zones of optimal functioning theory
an athlete within his or her optimal competitive state anxiety zone will likely have a best athletic performance, if anxiety is outside the zone then performance will be impaired
- differs among athletes
cusp catastrophe theory
recognizes the effects of cognitive anxiety and physiological arousal are INTERACTIVE
how does anxiety and arousal influence behaviours and performance?
- narrowing of attention - miss task relevant cues & become more conscious of movement and screw up
- high arousal disrupts performance of motor skills (can also predispose injury)
choking
an acute reduction in performance that occurs under high pressure or anxiety
- more common for athletes with low self-confidence and an audience
motivation
internal processes that give behaviour energy and direction
behavioural approaches to motivation
- operant conditioning
- vicarious conditioning
- operant strategies
operant conditioning
reinforcement (increases probability of repeating) and punishment (decreases probability of repeating)
vicarious conditioning
observing others
operant strategies
self-monitoring and rewarding yourself
cognitive approaches to motivation
- emphasizes role of thoughts and cognitive habits
- an individuals interpretation of external environment
- automatic thought processes, cognitive errors, and core beliefs can be altered
cognitive-behavioural approach
motivated behaviour that outline the reciprocal influence between cognitions and behaviour
ex. cognitions influence emotions and behaviour, behaviour affects thought patterns and emotions
transtheoretical model
how individuals initiate and adopt regular physical activity
5 stages of the transtheoretical model
- pre-contemplation (no intention to change)
- contemplation (thinking about changing)
- preparation (intend to change)
- action (make modifications in behaviour)
- maintenance (made modifications, prevent relapse)
factors that influence stage progression in the transtheoretical model
- self-efficacy
- decisional balance
- processes of change
self-efficacy
belief in your capabilities to organize and complete the action for desired outcomes
decisional balance
set of values associated with advantages and disadvantages of behavioural change
ex. if benefits outweigh the cons then action will more likely be completed
processes of change
strategies used to progress through the stages of change
ex. seeking information or social support
theory of planned behaviour
personal/social factors influence intention to engage in behaviour
three main antecedents in theory of planned behaviour
- attitude- if i have a good attitude before i do it i will want to go more
- subjective norms- if i see people go to the gym i will want to go
- perceived behavioural control- if the gym is easy to access i will go more
applications of the theory of planned behaviour
focus on enhancing the individuals intention to exercise
- increase attitude towards physical activity by increasing knowledge of exercise benefits
- target subjective norms by obtaining the support of others who are physically active
- target individual’s perceived behavioural control - make people believe exercise is easy
intention-behaviour gap
people do not always do what they intend to do
social cognitive theory
personal, behavioural, and environmental factors influence behaviour
reciprocal determinism
three sets of influences - person, environment, and behaviour all interact to influence one another
seven constructs of social cognitive theory
- observational learning
- goals
- outcome expectations (expected + and - outcomes)
- outcome expectancies (likelihood of achieving goals)
- self-regulation
- behavioural capacity (knowledge)
- self-efficacy
self efficacy - mastery experience
past performance success and failure for similar behaviours influence self-efficacy
self efficacy - vicarious experiences
modelled behaviours associated with development and change in self-efficacy
self-efficacy - social persuasion
verbal and non-verbal feedback from significant, knowledgeable others
self-efficacy - physiological and affective states
physical and emotional cues associated with performance and behaviour
applications of social cognitive theory
- make it possible for coaches to intervene
- apps used to engage in more physical activity
self-determination theory
human motivation and development
3 things:
1. competence
2. autonomy
3. relatedness
competence
feeling effective at one’s activities
autonomy
having a choice, being able to be yourself
relatedness
feeling connected to others, sense of belonging (team)
achievement goal theory
- task goal orientation
- ego goal orientation
*** depends of developmental and situation factors
task goal orientation
focuses on yourself and past performances for competence
- opportunities for personal growth and mastery
ego goal orientation
beating others drives competence
- success comes from outperforming others
motivational climate
influences achievement goal state
- emphasizing competition and winning evokes ego orientation
- emphasizing mastery and improvement evokes task orientation
dual process models
two primary systems that show out thoughts
1. conscious processes
2. non-conscious processes
conscious processes
deliberate, slow, guided by beliefs, and are of limited capacity
non-conscious processes
operate quickly, without awareness, based on feelings and automatic
what happens when dual processes are working together?
navigate effectively through the environment
order of dual process
once conscious processes are repeatedly linked with a behaviour, non-conscious processes emerge so the response becomes automatic
stress vs. anxiety
stress is caused by an EXTERNAL trigger, whereas anxiety comes from and INTERNAL stressor
emotion
subjective and complex psychological state, can be triggered by INTERNAL or EXTERNAL stimuli
- natural human experience
stress
experience produced through a person-situation relationship that exceeds the person’s resources
stressors
external events, forces, and situations that have the potential to be interpreted as stressful
chronic stress
stressors that occur over a LONG PERIOD of time
ex. money issues
acute stress
stressors that occur within a SHORT PERIOD of time and with SUDDEN ONSET
ex. moving to a new house
expected stressors
stressors that an athlete PLANS or prepares for
ex. weather
unexpected stressors
stressors that are NOT ANTICIPATED and cannot be prepared for
ex. injury or bad ref
competitive stressors
stressors that are experienced prior to, during or immediately following competition
non-competitive stressors
stressors that could effect how we perform, but are not directly related to actual competitive performance
examples of non-competitive stressors
- factors intrinsic to sport (travel, injury)
- roles in sport organization
- sport relationships
- athletic career and performance development issues
- organizational structure and climate of the sport
are stressors subjective or objective
subjective - we experience and perceive them differently
primary appraisal
evaluation of what is at stake for a person in a situation
- is this a threat to my well-being?
- challenge or opportunity for growth?
secondary appraisal
evaluation of what can be done in the situation, using coping abilities and resources to handle the stressors
results of appraisals
- harm/loss: damage already done
- threat: harm might occur
- challenge: the obstacles can be overcome
coping
efforts to manage stress
***not the same as management skills
management skills
behaviours that are routine and help individual avoid problems and prevent stress
***NOT COPING
coping strategies
- support from teammates, coaches, parents
- thinking about steps to manage situation
- increasing effort
- venting their anger and frustration
- using humour to deflect stress
problem-focused coping
help people change the actual situation
emotion-focused coping
don’t directly address the stressors but focus on changing the way a situation is interpreted to deal with the emotions that arise during the situation
avoidance coping
athletes attempt to remove themselves from the stressful situation
task-oriented coping
aimed at dealing directly with the source of stress and its resulting thoughts and emotions
distraction-oriented coping
try to think about other unrelated things
disengagement-oriented coping
disengage from the process of trying to make progress on a personal goal
emotion regulation
managing and modifying one’s emotional experiences and expressions
***can be conscious or unconscious
5 emotion regulation strategies
- situation selection
- situation modification
- attentional deployment
- cognitive change
- response modulation
how to see effectiveness of coping strategies
- perceived coping effectiveness (how well they think it works)
- achievement outcomes
- physical outcomes
- emotional outcomes
does reduction in stress always lead to performance enhancement?
NO
social learning theory
people shape behaviour, influenced by inner drives and environment
- focuses on how situations affect individuals and vice versa
moral behaviour
doing an action that is deemed right or wrong
moral development
process in which an individual develops the capacity to reason morally
structural development perspective
three development levels:
1. pre-conventional morality (fear of punishment, hope of reward)
2. conventional morality (looking for approval)
3. post-conventional morality (principled action)
social learning perspective to development of moral character
- learned through reinforcement and modelling (looking at others)
factors influencing moral behaviour
- sport environment: influenced by coach
- motivational climate: mastery vs. performance
- team norms: standards that influence behaviour
- goal orientation: task vs ego
aggression
verbal or physical act that intends to injure another living organism psychologically or physically
violent behaviour
extreme act of PHYSICAL aggression with no direct relationship to the competitive goals of sport
assertive behaviour
forceful, vigorous and legit actions with no intent to injure an opponent
four key points to aggressive behaviour
- it is a behaviour - not emotion or trait
- can be verbal or physical
- intended to cause physical or psychological harm
- directed towards another living organism
instrumental aggression
injure an opponent to try to screw up their performance in order to reach your goals
***IMPERSONAL
hostile aggression
intentional purpose of trying to harm or injure the opponent
***PERSONAL
bullying
more power attacks less power with the intention to harm
hazing
when an individual joining a group is humiliated, degraded, abused or does dangerous activity regardless of willingness to participate
psychodynamics theory of aggression
humans are born with behavioural tendencies causing them to act in certain ways
- Freud believed aggressive behaviour is natural
- not well supported
frustration-aggression theory
- aggression is a natural response to frustration
REVISED: aggression and frustration can have other causes apart from each other
physiological explanations to aggression
- brain pathology: aggression = characteristic of brain tumors
- blood chemistry: more testosterone = more aggression
social learning theory (aggression)
people learned aggressive behaviour through inner forces and environment because they learned aggression works
social learning theory - social interaction influence (aggression)
- modelling
- learning
factors influencing aggression
- personal
- situational
- group
moral disengagement theory
- people separate their morals to rationalize engaging in an action
- extension of SLT
- people try to refrain from behaviours that violate their morals
retaliation motives (personal factors)
attempt to harm opponents based on their previous aggression from another game
annoyances (personal factors)
aggress because of annoyance
ex. bad ref calls become annoying so you get aggressive
self-presentation (personal factors)
way individuals present themselves in social situations
ex. if i don’t feel pretty i get aggressive
deindividuation
individual feels less identifiable by others
passion/athletic identity (personal factors)
harmonious vs obsessive passion
individuals role (group factors)
individuals occupying a certain role are expected to behave consistently with that role
ex. hockey player was put on team cause he is big for the sole purpose of hitting
team norms (group factors)
behaviours expected for members of the group - unwritten rules of the game
ex. moving your feet in vball
collective efficacy for aggression (group factors)
teams perception of their ability to use aggressive behaviours as a tactic or strategy
ex. being loud in vball to win
punishment and encouragement to reduce aggression
- teaching that aggression doesn’t pay would elicit behavioural change
- punishment for aggression is more meaningful than reinforcement
- emphasize fair play/reward appropriate behaviours
- task goal instead of ego goal
- positive role models
educational interventions to reduce aggression
teach psychological skills to help cope with emotions (anger management skills)
behavioural modification practices to reduce aggression
- work on self-awareness and develop coping strategies
- athletes assume responsibility for actions
changes to sporting environment to reduce aggression
- ban alcohol
- promote athletic events as family affairs
- create enjoyable experiencing emphasizing fair play
- change competitive structure
aggressive behaviour in media
- sensationalizing and replaying acts of aggression repeatedly
- glorifying aggression in feature stories
- promoting various aggression between competitors to draw audience
solution to aggressive behaviour in media
glorify assertive plays and promote role models to increase acceptable behaviours
personal factors
- sex/gender (men=physical, women=psych)
- age (older=more aggressive)
- physical size (bigger=more aggressive)
- retaliation motives
- annoyances
- self-presentation
- passion/athletic identity
situational factors
- frequency of competition (more frequent = more aggression)
- home advantage (home=less aggression)
- point differentials
- coaching behaviours
group factors
- individuals role
- team norms
- collective efficacy for aggression
ways to reducing aggression in sport
- punishment and encouragement
- changes to sport environment
- educational interventions
- aggressive behaviour in the media
- behavioural modification practices
how does personality develop
- humanistic psychology
- cognitive-behavioural approaches
- biological/evolutionary psychology
- interactionist approach
