Midterm Flashcards
qual research
Research should focus on human lived reality
Inductive reasoning (from the specific to the general) leads to understanding.
Participants’ meanings are key.
Researchers must identify the definition of the situation.
Social settings are highly complex and can affect the outcome of an experiment.
Understanding exists in our agreed-upon experiences.
quan. research
Research should focus on theory development and testing.
Deductive reasoning (from general to specific) leads to truth.
Researchers’ meanings are key.
Researchers must find “objective” definitions.
A valid experiment should arrive at the same conclusion no matter where it is performed.
Truth is an objective reality.
positivism
Positivism has three principal attributes: (1) adherence to a realist perspective, (2) trust in causal knowledge, and (3) reliance on deductive reasoning.
realist perspective
assumes that reality is out there, waiting to be discovered, or, in the case of psychology, that reality is in there waiting to be discovered. For positivists, therefore, the objective of social science is to uncover the “laws” of human behaviour—what Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) called “social facts” (1897/1951).
causal knowledge
involves a belief that the world is made up of causes and effects that are external to individuals, observable, and measurable. This perspective borrows from the natural sciences and, indeed, has the goal of making social science worthy of the term science.
deductive reasoning
a form of reasoning that uses a process of inference to derive conclusions from general laws or premises
verstehen (a German word that translates as “sympathetic understanding”)
researchers should strive to put themselves in their research subjects’ shoes, to try to see their world through their eyes. For example, in Deborah’s research, she has worked with many older widows and, through interviews, she has developed a sympathetic understanding of the enormity of their loss. This understanding, in turn, has helped Deborah to interpret the information that she gathers from the interviews in a way that is appropriate to the widows’ experiences.
importance of qual. re.
sympathetic understanding and definition of the situation.
def. of the situation
this concept means that if we define a situation as true, it is true in its consequences. For example, when Deborah started a job as a waitress when she was in university, the person who was training her told her that women were poor tippers and that she should, therefore, not worry too much about how well she served them. That was her definition of the situation, and many servers in restaurants shared this definition. The consequence? Women often receive poorer service than men do. In response to poor treatment by servers, some women will, indeed, give a small tip, thus reinforcing the servers’ definition of the situation.
symbolic interactionism
suggests that the meaning of an object evolves through individuals’ shared understandings of and interactions with that object. The object, or “thing,” has no intrinsic meaning except for the ones we give it.
ethnomethodology
questioned how people go about everyday life in the absence of visible or formal rules, and he sought to discover the unwritten rules by which we communicate. For example, if your friend texts you and asks, “Do you want to go to the movies?” you do not reply “Yes,” put the phone in your pocket, and set off to see a movie by yourself. You know that the person is really asking you to go to the movies with them and that they expect you to understand this intention and to continue the conversation to discuss which movie you will see, when you will go, and where you will meet.
breaching experiments
qualitative experiments in which the researcher intentionally breaks one of the unspoken laws of interaction. For example, if you were to meet a friend on the street and ask, “How are you?” you would likely expect the person to say “Fine” and continue walking. If your friend were doing a breaching experiment, they might answer, “How am I in regard to what? Finances? School work? Love life?”
emergent
A characteristic of qualitative research. Research strategies change during the course of the research as the researcher becomes familiar with the research setting or social group.
theoretical saturation
A stage that occurs when the researcher is no longer learning anything new in collecting data. At this point, the researcher stops collecting data.
qual. differences in methods
Involves little or no advance knowledge of the type(s) of data to be collected
Allows participants to define how the study progresses and what the data mean
Strives for accuracy: researchers do not invent the actor’s viewpoint
Often involves in-depth interviews
Relies on subjective observation
Includes a literature review at the end of the study
quan. differences in methods
Involves advance knowledge of the type(s) of data to be collected
Minimizes participants’ input into types of data collected
Strives for reliability: researchers make sure the findings can be replicated
Often involves questionnaires or surveys
Relies on objective experiments
Includes a literature review at the outset of the study
mixed-methods research
A recent approach that combines qualitative methods with quantitative methods. Some argue that this approach can result in research findings that are more complete than could be arrived at by either method on its own.
indigenous methodologies
Ways of carrying out research with Indigenous peoples and communities that take into account the legitimacy of Indigenous knowledge systems, receptivity and relationship between researchers and participants, reciprocity with the community, and stories as a legitimate way of sharing knowledge (Kovach 2015:53).
indigenous résurgence
Paradigm that includes Indigenous peoples’ rootedness in the land, accountability to the community, and transformation through awakening to the impact of colonization and through knowledge that is transformational (Alfred 2015).
two-eyed seeing
Research approach that involves both Indigenous and Western ways of knowing equally for the benefit of all.
moral entrepreneurs
Individuals or groups who campaign to establish certain social behaviours as deviant or normative.
generic social processes
Aspects of interaction that transcend individual situations (for example, acquiring perspectives, achieving identity, doing activity, developing relationships, experiencing emotionality, and achieving linguistic fluency).
general social processes include:
(1) acquiring perspectives, (2) achieving identity, (3) doing activity, (4) developing relationships, (5) experiencing emotionality, and (6) achieving linguistic fluency
impression management
Developed by Erving Goffman (1959), this concept explains how people work to control the impression of themselves that they communicate to others through demeanour, expression, dress, and so on.
sociological imagination
The capacity to connect the patterns of individuals with those of society. It distinguishes between private troubles and public issues and is used to understand the connection between biography and history. C.W. Mills (1959) called it the “promise of sociology.”
hierarchy of credibility
The common situation in which those in superordinate positions and “experts” are seen as more credible than those in subordinate or marginal social positions.
participatory action-research
A form of community-based research that often aims to identify the needs and priorities of the group and translate findings into a form that can influence social policy or effect interventions to improve the situation of the group.
community-based research
A collaborative approach to research that includes community members in the design, implementation, and analysis of a study. The researcher shares control of the study with the community group involved.
serendipity
In general, a lucky coincidence. Researchers often experience an unexpected, spontaneous moment of inspiration that leads them to discover a social setting, research area, or theoretical insight while not actively looking for one.
prescriptive
Those approaches that dictate right or wrong behaviour. Qualitative research is analytical and descriptive rather than prescriptive.
acquiring perspectives
This process refers to how we learn to define objects in certain ways or to have particular attitudes towards objects or individuals.
achieving identity
This process relates to how one becomes an object to oneself. It includes the “associations and negotiations” that people have with others
ethical codes
(1) respect for persons, (2) concern for human welfare, and (3) justice
research ethics board (REB)
A body that assesses the ethical implications of research studies and has the power to approve or reject a research proposal. All Canadian researchers who conduct research involving humans must submit their plans to a research ethics board for approval before carrying out their study.
vocab of motives
The ways in which people describe and explain their reasons for doing things. These “vocabularies” are always tied to a particular social context; as such, they are subject to change and interpretation as one’s social circumstances change.
Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS)
lays out ethical considerations for researchers working with human participants
how to apply principles of ethics to qual. res.?
First, enter the research situation with an open mind. As a qualitative researcher, you should never expect your participants to confirm your own assumptions, and you should never invent or rush in to explain your participants’ motives.
Second, it will be helpful to ask “how” questions rather than “why” questions.
Third, acknowledge the various constraints that can intrude in a social setting that might also affect respect for the person.
Fourth, use an approach that fits the circumstances of the individual participant, group, community, and/or culture.
Fifth, forgo a “remedial” attitude. Your job is not to find a remedy for a problem or to “fix” things. Recall that qualitative research is descriptive and analytical rather than prescriptive.
Finally, try to form authentic relationships with your participants. You should treat your participants as valued partners in the research process, not as subjects to be studied from a distance.
seeking consent
In private or face-to-face situations, researchers are expected to seek informed consent from participants. In medical and most quantitative studies, researchers use consent forms that participants must sign before the start of the research, and many research ethics boards require researchers to use consent forms, duly signed by the research participant. Typically, the form explains the purpose and the methodology of the study, informs participants that they can stop the interview at any time without any personal risk, and provides a guarantee of confidentiality and anonymity. The use of signed consent forms is a legacy of the biomedical approach, and some believe they protect researchers and participants. Many, however, contest their appropriateness.
where is written consent not appropriate?
First, there are certain settings in which it would be inappropriate or insensitive to seek individual written consent—for example, in cultures that nurture a sense of collectivity (and in which the individual’s identity only makes sense insofar as it is part of that collectivity) or in a setting where illiteracy is the norm.
Second, some collectives might interpret the researcher’s seeking individual consent as an affront to the larger group.
Third, some participants might want to protect their anonymity by not attaching their name to an “official” document. This is often the case when the research is focused on individuals living on the margins of society, those involved in illegal activities, or even those who occupy positions of power and prestige.
Finally, some participants might see the need to sign a consent form as a serious betrayal of the trust that has developed over the course of previous interactions with the researcher. With the presentation of a formal consent form, what was initially a friendly soliciting of the perspectives and insights of a participant becomes a hopelessly unnatural relationship.
presentism
The belief that we can use today’s standards to evaluate older texts and social phenomena.
what requires a lot of ethical reflection?
writing up research
writing up research
As you are deciding what to include in your write-up, you will have to consider the extent to which you will address ethical aspects of your research methods and findings. Many of these aspects could have the power to raise awareness of issues central to your study.
Writing Concisely and with Clarity
Avoiding jargon and using short, straightforward sentences in your write-up will show your reader that you are not trying to confuse the issues, that you have nothing to hide. Using the active voice and the first-person perspective will also help you to accomplish this goal by forcing you to unambiguously state who conducted the research, who led the interviews, who did the coding, and who did the analysis.
Offering a Balanced View
When you are writing up your research, it is critical that you focus on presenting a balanced view of your findings. Having researched a topic extensively, passionately, and with a great deal of sacrifice of resources, time, and effort, you may have developed your own moral or ethical judgments, but you must be careful to avoid overtly supporting or criticizing any side of an issue in your report.
Developing a research question
Remain open-minded.
Fieldwork
Spending a long period of time will require researchers to be open to unexpected ethical dimensions.
Gaining access to the field
Be frank in explaining your research.
Spending time in the field
Be aware of the effects of your presence in a given community or population.
Leaving the field
Leave as a good guest.
Covert field research
the researcher conceals their true identity or purpose from the participants. This means that the researcher does not reveal that they are conducting research, and the participants are unaware that they are being observed or studied.
Bear in mind that sometimes harm or danger can be avoided when doing covert research.
Interviews and transcriptions
Inform participants of the intentions of your research.
Consent
typically ask for verbal consent
Content analysis
Avoid presentism.
Analyzing data
Be faithful to your data.
Ethics in the digital age
Determine the difference between public and restricted access to data and information on the Internet.
Writing up research
Respect the readers of your report, and be careful to maintain your participants’ anonymity.
Writing concisely and with clarity
Avoid jargon and the passive voice.
Offering a balanced view
Understand the challenge of being analytical and yet fair.
ethnography
In-depth study of a group, culture, or society that usually entails fieldwork.
The most common method of fieldwork
participant observation, which involves becoming a participant in the setting while retaining some distance as an observer.
salvage ethnography
Early Canadian anthropology’s practice of collecting documents, photographs, and artifacts of First Nations and “folk” cultures of Quebec to preserve them in the mistaken belief that these cultures would soon die out.
primary group
A group of people with whom an individual has close and long-lasting relationships. Members of a primary group usually include parents, siblings, and close friends.
complete participant
A field researcher’s role in which they attempt to become a full-fledged member of the group they are studying, concealing their intent from the group.
participant as observer
A role in which a field researcher makes their presence known to participants and participates in at least some of the group’s activities.
observer as participant
A role in which a field researcher makes their presence known to participants but interacts with the group in only limited ways.
complete observer
A field researcher’s role in which they do not interact with the participants in a social setting and might not inform them that they are doing a study.
Complete participation pros and cons
offers an unobstructed view into participants’ lives, but there are obvious ethical issues associated with this approach.
In addition, the complete participant risks identifying so strongly with the group members that they lose the ability to look at the situation analytically. In some settings—particularly, those involving cults, gangs, and radical political groups—the members may “actively seek to convert the researcher”
participant as observer or observer as participant
pros and cons
the investigator has the advantage of being a “known incompetent”; as a result, insiders (i.e., group members) will “teach [them] things [and] tell [them] things they would never tell one another” (Schwartz and Jacobs 1979:55). Adopting the role of the “ethnographic stranger” (Fine 2019) rather than passing as a group member allows for some analytic distance.
The disadvantage of these roles is that the very marginality that allows the researcher to appear as incompetent prevents them from gaining an insider’s experience of the group.
complete observer pros and cons
because the complete observer has to rely on what they notice and overhear in the setting, they may misinterpret the meanings that behaviour and interactions have for the participants.
Storylines
Your storyline is the explanation you provide to individuals in the setting about the purpose of your research and how you would like to participate.
gatekeeper
Individuals who have the power to deny or grant the researcher access to a social setting, often, but not always, in an official capacity.
The way you present your storyline to a gatekeeper is very important. If gatekeepers believe that the research will make their organization or themselves appear in a positive light, they will be more likely to give you access.
bargain with gatekeeper?
In relation to accessing a setting for field research, a bargain is an agreement a researcher makes with a gatekeeper in exchange for permission to access a social setting. It often entails a promise of confidentiality.
sponsor
Individuals who provide access to certain settings and populations in informal ways. They are often central members of their group and lend legitimacy to the researcher by vouching for them.
An effective way to gain trust and build rapport is to?
adopt the attitude of a learner or take the role of an “incompetent”. Asking questions at this stage will show that you respect the knowledge of your participants and communicate your genuine interest in their affairs.
incorporation
The process through which members of a research setting define the researcher’s role or social place in the setting.
spatial fusion
Spatial fusion occurs when two or more spaces, physically distant from one another, become symbolically connected and conceived of as components of the same place.
virtual ethnography
In-depth study of an online group or culture in which researchers use online communities as research settings.
challenges of virtual ethnography unique to the online environment
First, deception by participants is fairly common online. Therefore, the researcher cannot be sure that what people say about themselves bears any resemblance to their reality offline. Yet, when the researcher’s goal is to study an online culture, what matters is the definition the members of the culture have of each other. Second, the researcher must decide whether to “lurk” or to participate. It is quite common for many members of a list to lurk, to read messages without ever being visible. If the virtual ethnographer decides to participate, they must also consider how to develop an appropriate online persona. This step might include creating a signature, an avatar, or even a website (Hine 2008). These preparations mirror those that any ethnographer must consider before approaching a social setting or community.
cyber-ethnography
In-depth study of an online group or culture in which researchers use online communities as research settings.
tiny public
Small associations of individuals that, as sources of integration, can be “the cornerstone of social order” though which “societal life is shaped” (Fine 2012: 2-3).
closed-ended or forced-choice questions
A question that limits the possible responses to options provided by the researcher. Closed-ended questions are characteristic of quantitative surveys.
in-depth interviews
A directed conversation in which an interviewer encourages a participant or participants to describe their social world in their own terms.
Unlike standardized interviews, the purpose of in-depth interviews is to allow people to explain their experiences, attitudes, feelings, and definitions of the situation in their own terms and in ways that are meaningful to them.
standardized interviews
Thoroughly scripted interviews that aim to collect quantitative data by asking interviewees to choose from a list of predetermined responses. They are most useful when the researcher wants to collect simple, straightforward answers.
often to test hypotheses.
Standardized interviews are most useful when the researcher wants information that is unambiguous and knows the “very thing” that they want to uncover
questionnaire
This type of interview assumes that the researcher can minimize or eliminate bias by making everything in the interview uniform. It functions on a stimulus–response model that suggests that if you standardize the stimulus (that is, the questions and the way that the interviewer reads them), the variations in answers represent a true measure of what you are investigating
limitations of standardized interviews
Standardized interviews provide only a rough sketch of respondents’ true situations and cannot uncover any unexpected data. They further note that the basic assumptions of standardized interviews—those assumptions that make these interviews useful when conducting quantitative research—stand in direct opposition to the qualitative researcher’s goal of obtaining complex, participant-defined data.
To begin with, the standardized interview takes for granted that all respondents will understand and relate to the questions in the way in which the researcher intended. In other words, it assumes validity across various social contexts
The standardized interview also presumes that the response options provided by the researcher will be exhaustive and that they will not inadvertently exclude other valid answers that the interviewee might provide
Similarly, standardized interviews assume that the researcher can construct mutually exclusive responses to the survey questions.
active interviews
An approach to conducting an interview in which the researcher analyzes not only what is said but how it is said. It focuses on the interactive process as a source of data that the researcher can analyze to understand the social world of participants.
feeling rules
Guidelines that direct how we want to try to feel in a particular situation. First developed by Arlie Hochschild in relation to flight attendants, the concept is used by sociologists to describe many situations.
snowball sampling
A method of selecting individuals to take part in a study in which the researcher identifies initial participants and then asks them to introduce the researcher to others who fit the sample criteria.
probes
In in-depth interviews, probes are follow-up questions that ask the participant to elaborate on, explain, or provide a story about what they have said.
common pitfalls
Don’t make your participants feel as though they are being interrogated.
Avoid using questions that begin with the word why.
Never ask leading or loaded questions.
Another type of question to avoid is the double-barrelled question.
Finally, avoid closed-ended questions (mentioned earlier), especially ones that lead to one of only two possible answers.
double-barrelled question
A question that includes two or more sub-questions.
Photo elicitation
The use of photographs in interviews to facilitate discussion. Sometimes researchers take the photographs themselves, and sometimes they ask research participants to take the photos.
Asking participants to take photographs serves two purposes:
(1) it starts the participants thinking about the topic; and (2) it allows them to bring into the research what is meaningful to them
OCAP + self determination
ownership
control
access
possession
what happened in the Tuskegee study?
The Tuskegee study failed to provide informed consent. The men were not informed about the purpose of the study, and many did not understand they had syphilis nor received treatment. Secondly, non-maleficence was violated as the researchers supported the spread of the disease by withholding treatment for syphilis – penicillin was available. Finally, the researchers did not treat the participants with respect, or dignity. The study was discriminatory towards a certain already-marginalized minority group – African American men. Moreover, the study also failed to provide any benefit to the men involved.
The study was initially designed to observe the natural progression of untreated syphilis in African American men. However, the participants were not told they had syphilis and were not given proper treatment even after the discovery of penicillin as a cure for the disease.
As a result, many of the participants developed severe health problems, including blindness, heart disease, and death. The study was finally exposed to the public in 1972 and was widely condemned for its unethical practices and disregard for human life.
The study resulted in the enactment of the National Research Act in 1974, which established the institutional review board system to oversee human research studies in the United States. The Tuskegee syphilis study serves as a reminder of the importance of ethical considerations in medical research and the need to protect the rights and well-being of study participants.
who produced the first qualitative studies that relied on an ethnographic style of fieldwork?
chicago school of sociology
hip hop-eration
Hip Hop-eration is a documentary film that tells the inspiring story of a group of senior citizens from New Zealand who form a hip hop dance group and travel to Las Vegas to compete in an international hip hop competition.
The group, whose members range in age from 66 to 96, is led by their charismatic dance instructor, Billie Jordan. Despite facing numerous challenges, including physical limitations and financial constraints, the group perseveres and becomes a sensation in their community and around the world.
The film documents their journey as they train, perform, and ultimately compete in the competition, showcasing their energy, determination, and love for life. Along the way, the film highlights the importance of community, the power of dance, and the limitless potential of the human spirit, no matter what age.
First, the film provides a rich and detailed portrayal of the lives and experiences of the senior citizens in the hip hop dance group. Through interviews, observations, and interactions with the participants, the film captures the nuances of their culture, values, and beliefs, and provides insight into their perspectives and ways of life. This aligns with the key goals of ethnography, which is to gain a deep understanding of a particular group or community and to provide an emic perspective that reflects the insider’s point of view.
Second, the documentary illustrates the importance of building relationships and trust with research participants. Billie Jordan, the group’s dance instructor, develops close relationships with the seniors, earning their trust and respect over time. This is an essential aspect of ethnography, which involves building rapport and establishing a sense of mutual understanding with the people being studied.
vicious dog-hearing Calgary courts center
The Vicious Dog Hearing is a legal process that is aimed at protecting the public from dangerous dogs, while also ensuring that responsible dog owners are able to keep their pets. The hearing provides an opportunity for all parties to present evidence and for a judge to make a fair and impartial decision based on the facts of the case.
eco-warriors movement?
Overall, the eco-warriors movement raises important ethical considerations for qualitative research, including informed consent, confidentiality, and reflexivity.
5 types of descriptive questions?
1) Grand Tour Questions
2) Mini Tour Questions
3) Example Questions
4) Experience Questions
5) “Native” language Questions
pretest consent process?
Explain the purpose of the study
Describe the interview process
Discuss confidentiality
Obtain written consent
Address any questions or concerns
SOLER?
sitting
open
lean
eye contact
relax
