Midterm Flashcards
What are the 4 goals of research?
to describe
to explain
to predict
to control
What is methodology vs. method?
Methodology = a set of rules that state how research should be conducted. the rationale for the research approach
Methods = technqiues for gathering evidence
What are 3 types of methodological approaches to research?
1) positivist/instrumental approach - says reality is objective
2) interpretivist approach - qualitative, subjective
3) critical approach - looks at societal structures, based on reflective knowledge
What is descriptive vs. explanatory research?
Escriptive research looks at what is happening.
- census, polls, market research
Explanatory research looks at why something is happening
- ex: why does fibre lower cholestrol
Census, polls and market research are all which types of research
descriptive research
____ research works to expand knowledge
pure/basic research
____ research works to solve problems
applied research
theory –> hypothesis –> research
deductive research
operational –> conceptual –> theoretical
inductive research
the effect in cause and effect
dependent variable
the cause in cause and effect
independent variable
Explain the difference between intervening variable, conditional variable, confounding variable
intervening variable = links IV to DV. IV –> intervening variable –> DV. example: income is an intervening variable that explains the relationship between education and spending
Conditional variable = accounts for change in relationship between IV and DV when the general conditions change. in a chemical reaction, x impacts y when the pH is below 3
Confounding variable = influences IV, influences DV, but not on the causal pathway.
name 3 types of control variables:
1) intervening variable
2) conditional variable
3) confounding variable
what is operationalization?
the process of defining and measuring phenomena that are not directly measurable
turning abstract concepts into measurable observations
what is reliability vs. validity?
reliability = are the results reproducable? am i getting the same answer over again?
validity = accuracy. are you measuring what you think you are
If the alarm clock rings at 7AM each morning, except it is set for 6:30 AM, that is an example of _____ but not _____
reliability, but not validity
what are the 9 steps in the research process?
- identify topic of interest
- gather background info
- set research question
- access your sample
- develop tools and methods
- choose design and methology
- otganize and analyze data
- interpret results, define conclusion
- transfer knowledge
to test theories, you use ____ reasoning. to generate theories you use _____ reasoning
to test use deductive reasoning, to generate use inductive reasoning
the study of variations in the pattern of health in different populations
epidemiology
what are the 3 ways to explain research findings?
- bias
- chance
- truth
what are 4 types if bias discussed in class?
- selection bias
- measurement bias
- confounding bias
- outcome assessor bias
who was selected as part of the experiment - example of ____ bias
selection bias
a type of bias that looks at how good is the instrument at measuring what its supposed to measure
measurement bias
when studying epidimiology, we can use 3 types of studies:
- surveillance studies
- descriptive epidimioligcal studies
- analytical studies
these types of studies are used to study distribution. they try to understand the rapidly increasing ways in which personal details are collected, stored, transmitted, checked, and used as means of influencing and managing people and populations.
surveillance studies
what are the 2 types of morbidity frequency measures in descriptive studies?
prevalence = the # of instances of a given disease in a population at specific time
# of affected people in population / vs # of all people at specific time
incidence = the rate at which NEW events occur in a population during a specific time. cases per 100,000. # of new cases of covid / # of people at risk for covid
What are the 3 research designs for descriptive studies?
- correlational studies
- cross-sectional studies
- case-series studies
what are research designs for analytical studies?
- observation - case control and cohort
- experimental - clinical trials
Prospective studies, longitudinal studies, and follow-up studies are all examples of:
cohort studies
what is a case-control study? advantages and disadvantages?
- it is a type of observational, analytical study, retrospective study
- when you have outcome + control group
- advantages: quick, efficient,
- disadvantages: temporal sequence between exposure and outcome is hard to establish, hard to obtain info from past exposures
example: if you have a group that has green hair (outcome), and a group that doesnt (Control). look back in time to see why they may have developed green hair
what are correlational studies?
compare disease frequencies between different groups.
DOESNT determine associaton
when looking at mortality/morbidity rates in different countries, that is an example of ____ studies
correlational studies (type of descriptive study)
what are limitations of cross sectional studies ( a type of descriptive study)
- recall bias
- issues with direction of causality
- not efficient for rare diseases
- not suitable for diseases with short duration
- low response rate
what are advantages of cross-sectional studies
quick
easy
measures many exposures and outcomes simultaneously
what type of descriptive study can be used as the basis for cohort studies?
Cross-sectional studies
When do we use cohort (observational) studies?
when we want to study the incidence of health-related events in a group
what are 2 common measures of analytical epidimioligcal studies?
- relative risk
- odds ratio
how do you calculate relative risk in epidimioligcal studies?
incidence of cases in exposed group / incidence of cases in non-exposed group
How do you calculate odds ratios?
odds of exposure for cases/ odds of exposure for controls
Odds ratios are used in ______ studies while relative risk ratios are used in ______ stidues
Odds = case control studies
RR = cohort studies
What are critical appraisals good for?
- systematically evaluating scientific literature
- sifting good from bad
- breaking barriers between research and practice
- filtering the og research
what are the 3 parts of appraising quantitiatve research?
- the message
- the validity
- the generalizability
what are the 3 parts of the systematic literature review process?
- systematic research
- critical appraisal
- synthesis of literature
what are nonreactive studies?
studies where the participant isnt aware they are being studied, so they cant react
what are the 4 main categories of nonreactive studies?
- comparative studies
- secondary data analysis
- content analysis
- observational field studies
What are comparative studies?
- they are a type of nonreactive studies
- they look at similarities and differences between groups
- usually cross-cultural research
if you are looking at cancer rates in rwanda vs. ghana, that is an example of a ______ study
comparative study
equivalence data, the concept of needing to ensure the data we are comparing is equivalent, is a challenge in this type of study
comparative studies
what is equivalence of indicators?
- it is a challenge in comparative, nonreactive studies
- ex: if you measure appetite as an indicator of nutritional status. appetite cant be measured well directly because it is subjective
what is secondary data analysis?
- A type of nonreactive study
- when you analyse published material. someone has already collected the data, you are doing hypothesis testing on it
what is content analysis
- a type of nonreactive study
- when you make inferenced by systematically identifying specified characteristcs of msgs
- ex: analyze top womens magazines and identify trends
- examining patterns
what are observational field studies
- a type of nonreactive study
- field experiemnts
- ex: look at how much food kids were leaving on their plates
_____ involves analyzing messages conveyed by the media
Content analysis ( a type of nonreactive study)
why would someone use qualitative research?
- to explore a social problem
- to study meaning
- to understand phenomenon fron the perspective of participants
What are some characteristics of qualitative research?
- subjective
- holistic
- uses smaller samples
- naturalistic
- emergent design
what are some examples of quantitatve research characteristics
- objective
- reductionist
- use controls
- big sample size
what are 3 common methodologies for qual research?
- ethnography
- grounded theory
- phenomenology
What is ethnography?
- It is a form of qualitative research.
- it is when you learn from people rather than studying them.
- ## it considers values and practices of a cultural group
What is grounded theory?
- it is a form of qualitative research.
- When you generate theory grounded in data
What is phenomenology?
- it is a form of qualitative research
- it is the study of phenomena
- it provides rich descriptions
- the goal is to describe the essence of lived experiences
what is reflexivity?
- acknowledging a researcher’s position and how that can effect wht you choose to study, how you choose to study, etc
what are commonly used data collection methods for qualitative research?
- participant observation - researcher is active participant
- in depth interviews
- focus groups
the hawthorne effect - when you change your behaviours because peopel are watching, is a limitation of this type of qualitative research
focus groups
Conjoint analysis
instead of asking people to tell you what they feel or dont feel, you use experimental design to figure out what people like and dont like
higher p value = less ______ result
reliable
what is statistical significance
is a determination that a relationship between two or more variables is caused by something other than chance.
what is a p value?
- evidence against the null hypothesis
- the probability of error when accepting the result as valud
surveys are used to establish ____ between variables
association (NOT CAUSATION)
What are some strengths of surveys?
- easy
- cheap
- efficient (can study large sample)
- reliable
what are some weaknesses of surveys?
- inflexible (predetermined)
- cant determine causation
- low response rate?
polls, consensus research, CCHS, are all examples of:
surveys
what are the rules of survey administration?
- establish legitimacy
- keep it simple
- report ot respondent
- pay repsondent
- no pressure to participatr
- quality control
what is a good response rate for a mailed questionnaire
60% is good, 70% is very good, 40% is adequate
what are some benefits of phone surveys?
cost effective
high response rate
fast to administer
broad geographical area
confidential
what are advantages and disadvantages of personal interviews
advantages
- flexible with question order
- high response rate
- observe nonverbal behaviour
- can probe/explore questions
disadvantages
- time-consuming
- expensive
what is the difference between surveys and questionnaires
- surveys are a type of research design
- questionnaires are a type of data collection, and are used in surveys. questionnaires are a data collection instrument made of a series of questions
what are panel studies?
- they monitor specific organizations or people over time
- a longitudinal study
_____ are the research design, while ____ are the instrument used
surveys are research design
questionnares are instrument
_____ are the research design, while ____ are the instrument used
surveys are research design
questionnares are instrument
_______ seeks to demonstrate causal relationships between variables
experiments
experimental knoweldge is:
- objective
- data driven
- empirical
- replicable
- verifiable
- public
what are 4 key elements of experimental design?
- dependent variable
- independent variable
- manipulation and control
- treatment levels
a variable that isnt of interest, and may not be known to the researcher, that affects the dependent variable
extraneous variable
confounding variable
a variable that isnt controlled by an experiment but that has a systemic effect on behaviour of at least one group in the experiment
it affects IV, and affects DV, but is not on the causal pathway
what are the 3 requirements to ensure that you can confirm a cause and effect relationship?
- covariance rule
- temporal precedence rule
- internal validity rule
what is the covariance rule
when one variable changes, so does the other. Things vary together in predictable ways
ex: if i do physical activity, my LDL levels will increase
if i go on a diet, i will lose weight. this is an example of ______
the covariance rule
what is the temporal precedence rule
the variable assumed to have a causal effect must precede the effect it is supposed to cause
ex: if i sign up for a diet and start losing weight before i even start the diet, that doesnt make sense
what is the internal validity rule
- the variable that is assumes to be causal msut be the most plausible cause - other competing variables should be ruled out
What is pseudo-experimental design?
- it is a type of experimental design
has a lack of controls, so cant make causal inferences
2 options: - you have same group do a pre/post test
- you have exposed vs. comparison group
what are the 2 basic designs of classic experimentals?
- between subjects
- within subjects
what are the 3 main elements of between-subject experimental design?
- control over extraneous variables
- methods of dealing with pre-treatment similarity of groups
- manipulation
what type of design is it when the IV is given to the same subjects
Within-subjects design
repeated measures design
what has greater statistical power - within subject design or between subject design?
within subject design
what are the advantages and disadvantages of repeated measure designs
advantages
- efficient
- more valid
- reduced error in measurement
- less participants
Limitations
- order effect
subject variables
what are 4 ways of achieving evuivalence of treatments in between subject designs
- randomization
- precision matching
- blocking
- baseline stability
what is precision matching
a method of achieving equivalence in between-subject design. identifying matching pairs according to key variables, and then randomizing the pairs
ex: in nutrition studies, might want to match people on bmi, certain levels of activity
what is blocking?
a method of achieving equivalence in between-subject design
randomize within each block
ex: randomize based on gender, age group, etc
what is baseline stability
a method of achieving equivalence in between-subject design
the process of being recruited into an experiment makes you reap benefits
monitor baseline glucose levels before doing study
What is internal validity?
the extent to which the researcher can say that a specific treatment is think impacting the outcome, and that other things have been controlled
I am measuring what i am supposed to measure.
about control
what is external validity
it is about generalizability
it is the extent to which results can be generalized from the experimental sample to a defined population
as we increase _____, we decrease ______
generalizability, control
What is a threat in a study?
any factor, other than the treatment, that leads to post test differences between groups
what are 7 example of threats to internal validity a study?
- historic threat
- maturation threat
- testing threat
- instrumentation
- statistical regression
- selection
- mortality/attrition
what is a historic threat in an experiment
any other event that may be influencing variation in the DV
ex: weight loss study done during DC national uutrition month
what is a maturation threat in an experiment
changes occuring in a participant over the course of an experiment that may influence outocme.
ex: pretest measures on monday morning, post-teast measures on friday afternoon
what is a testing threat in an experiment
any effect on a DV due to a testing process
ex: participant might try to give a more acceptable response
what is instrumentation, when it comes to threats in an experiment
lack of reliability of measurement instruments
ex: different weight scales
how can statistical regression be a threat in an experiment?
when groups are selected on the basis of extreme scores, intervention will show a statistical regression toward less extreme scores
things trend towards the mean
how can selection be a threat in an experiment?
selection bias - participants who choose to participate in a study may represent an inherently different group than those who refuse to participate
how can mortality/attrition be a threat in an experiment?
systematic withdrawal from a study
what are 2 threats to external validity in a study?
- strict inclusion/exclusion criteria
- if you can’t replicate treatment conditions, due to something like expensive equipment
how do you increase control/internal validity?
- use control/placebo group
- increase generalizability through random selection, random assignment, matching of groups
how do you increase control/internal validity?
- use control/placebo group
- increase generalizability through random selection, random assignment, matching of groups
what are strengths and limitations of experimental design?
strengths
- cause and effect
- high control
limitations
- ethics
- cost
- low external validity
- hawthorne effect
what is a quasi-experiment
similar to experiment, but lacks control and randomization
1. cant randomly assign subjects
2. cant control the treatment due to timing, nature, etc
what is cross sectional research
looks at things at specific moment in time
what are 4 types of longitudinal research?
- time-series
- panel study - the movie boyhood
- cohort study - type of panel study, but look at people who experienced the same lfie event.
- case study - look at many features of a few cases over time
what are 4 quantitative data collection techniques?
- experiments
- surveys
- content analysis
- existing statistics
which methodological approach emphasizes controlling physical and social environments?
the positivist approach
which methodological approach examines how people make sense of their lives?
the interpretive approach
which methodological approach examines societal structures and power relations?
the critical approach
which methodological approach says that research should be value free?
the positivist approach
which methodological approach uses deduction
the positivist approach
this methodological approach assumes all behaviour is naturally determines, and that knowledge comes from experience
the positivist approach
which methodological approach is concerned with issues of dependability and transferability?
the interpretive approach
which methodological approach is based on reflective knowledge?
the critical approach
the goal of this methodological approach is to achieve/promotose social justice
the criticial approach
