Midterm

Question 1

What are the methods of acquiring knowledge?

Answer 1

They are ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to questions.
Includes: method of tenacity, method of intuition, method of authority, method of faith, rational method, empirical method, scientific method.

Question 2

What is the method of tenacity?

Answer 2

Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it.
The information might not be accurate.

Question 3

What is the method of intuition?

Answer 3

Information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or “gut feeling.”
The information might not be accurate.

Question 4

What is the method of authority?

Answer 4

A person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area.
It is a quick and easy way to get answers but the answers can be subjective.

Question 5

What is the method of faith?

Answer 5

It is a variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the authority figure and, therefore, accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge.

Question 6

What is the rational method?

Answer 6

It is also called rationalism, and it seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning.
People aren’t good at logical reasoning.

Question 7

What is the empirical method?

Answer 7

It is also called empiricism, it uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge.
Observations can be misinterpreted.

Question 8

What is the scientific method?

Answer 8

It is a method of acquiring knowledge that uses observations to develop a hypothesis, and then uses the hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be empirically tested by making additional, systematic observations.

Question 9

What are the steps of the scientific method?

Answer 9

Step 1: Observation - observe an event and come to a conclusion
Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis
Step 3: Developing a testable prediction: specific statement predicting the relationship between variables
Step 4: Planned observations: collect and analyze data
Step 5: Evaluate the original hypothesis: based on observations, either support refute or refine the hypothesis

Question 10

What is induction/inductive reasoning?

Answer 10

It involves using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations.

Question 11

What are variables?

Answer 11

They are characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals.

Question 12

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 12

It is a statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables. It is a proposal to be tested and evaluated.

Question 13

What are the three important principles of the scientific method?

Answer 13

It is empirical: the observations are structured so that the results either will provide clear support for the hypothesis or will clearly refute the hypothesis.
It is public: enough detail should be provided so that anyone can replicate the study exactly to verify the findings.
It is objective: the observations are structured so that the researcher’s biases and beliefs do not influence the outcome of the study.

Question 14

What is pseudoscience?

Answer 14

A system of ideas often presented as science but actually lacking some of the key components that are essential to scientific research.

Question 15

What is quantitative research?

Answer 15

It is based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores, usually numerical values, which are submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation.

Question 16

What is qualitative research?

Answer 16

It is based on making observations that are summarized and interpreted in a narrative report.

Question 17

What are the steps of the research process?

Answer 17

Step 1: find a research idea - select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question (gap)
Step 2: form a hypothesis
Step 3: determine how you will define and measure your variables
Step 4: identify the participants/subjects for the study, decide how they will be selected, plan for their ethical treatment
Step 5: select a research strategy
Step 6: select a research design
Step 7: conduct the study
Step 8: evaluate the data
Step 9: report the results
Step 10: refine/reformulate your research idea

Question 18

What are common sources of topics?

Answer 18

Personal interest/curiosity; casual observation/experience; reports of other’s observations; practical problems or questions; behavioural theories

Question 19

What is applied research?

Answer 19

It is intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems.

Question 20

What is basic research?

Answer 20

Research studies intended to answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge.

Question 21

What is a primary source?

Answer 21

A firsthand report of observations or research results written by the individual(s) who actually conducted the research and made the observations.

Question 22

What is a secondary source?

Answer 22

A description or summary of another person’s work; written by someone who did not participate in the research being discussed.

Question 23

What are the 2 basic goals of a literature search?

Answer 23

Gain a general familiarity with the current research in your specific area of interest.
Find a small set of research studies to serve as the basis for you research idea.

Question 24

What is the process of conducting a literature search?

Answer 24

narrow down your general idea to a specific research question; look at recently published secondary sources; make note of subject words; make note of author names.
The search is done when you feel comfortable with your knowledge about the topic area.

Question 25

What is a testable hypothesis?

Answer 25

One for which all of the variables, events, and individuals can be defined and observed.
It has to be a positive statement about the existence of a relationship/difference/treatment effect.

Question 26

What is a refutable hypothesis?

Answer 26

One that can be demonstrated to be false. The outcome can be different from the prediction.

Question 27

What is a theory?

Answer 27

A set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behaviour.

Question 28

What are constructs?

Answer 28

Hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behaviour in a theory. (ex: stress)
External stimulus –> Construct –> External behvaiour

Question 29

What is an operational definition?

Answer 29

A procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly.

Question 30

Why do we measure variables?

Answer 30

For comparison; classification; prediction; program evaluation; decision-making; diagnosis

Question 31

What is a positive relationship?

Answer 31

When two measurements change together in the same direction. (going up to the right side of graph)

Question 32

What is a negative relationship?

Answer 32

When two measurements change in opposite directions so that people who score high on one measurement tend to score low on the other. (going down from left to right)

Question 33

What is validity?

Answer 33

The degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure.
Types of validity: face validity; concurrent validity; predictive validity; construct validity; convergent validity; divergent validity.

Question 34

What is face validity?

Answer 34

An unscientific form of validity demonstrated when a measurement procedure superficially appears to measure what it claims to measure. (ex:knowing that you’ll take an IQ test will cause you to study more)

Question 35

What is concurrent validity?

Answer 35

Demonstrated when scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from an established measure of the same variable. (correlation between test and new test)

Question 36

What is predictive validity?

Answer 36

Demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behaviour according to a theory. (correlation)

Question 37

What is construct validity?

Answer 37

Requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself. Grows gradually as new studies using the same measurement procedure contribute more evidence.

Question 38

What is convergent validity?

Answer 38

Demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from two (or more) different methods of measuring the same construct.

Question 39

What is divergent validity?

Answer 39

Demonstrated by showing little or no relationship between the measurements of two different/unrelated constructs.

Question 40

What is internal validity?

Answer 40

Study provides a clear explanation for the relationship between two variables.

Question 41

What is external validity?

Answer 41

The extent to which your results can generalize to other settings and populations.

Question 42

What is reliability?

Answer 42

The consistency of a measure over repeated applications under the same conditions.

Question 43

What are common sources of error?

Answer 43

Observer error: human error from individual making the measurement.
Environmental changes: small changes in the environment can affect the measurements (of different individuals).
Participant changes: participants change (their focus/mood, etc.) which causes differences in measurements.
Measurement Error:
Measured Score = True Score + Error

Question 44

What is test-retest reliability?

Answer 44

Established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores.
When alternative versions of the measuring instrument are used for the two measurements, the reliability measure is called parallel-forms reliability.

Question 45

What is inter-rater reliability?

Answer 45

The degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviours.

Question 46

What is split-half reliability?

Answer 46

Obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half, and then calculating the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants.

Question 47

What are the different scales of measurement?

Answer 47

Nominal scale: represents qualitative (not quantitative) differences in the variable measured (names).
Ordinal scale: has different names that are organized in an ordered series.
Interval scale: series of equal intervals (like inches on ruler) organized sequentially; has an arbitrary zero (ex: temperature).
Ratio scale: series of equal intervals (like inches on ruler) organized sequentially; absolute zero (0=0, ex: height)

Question 48

What are the types of measurement?

Answer 48

Self-report measure: questionnaires/participants’ own descriptions; direct (more face validity) but subjective; easy to distort self-reports.
Physiological measure: brain-imaging techniques (PET, MRI) to monitor brain activity in specific areas; objective but invasive; costly and time-consuming.
Behavioural measure: observing and measuring behaviour; interpretation; cluster better.

It is better to use multiple measures to have more confidence in the validity of the measurements.

Question 49

What are the sensitivity and range effects of measurements?

Answer 49

Range effect: measurement is not sensitive enough to detect a difference.
Ceiling effect: clustering of scores at high end of scale; little possibility of increases in scores.
Floor effect: clustering of scores at low end of scale; little possibility of decreases in scores.

Question 50

What are artifacts and experimenter bias?

Answer 50

Artifact: a non-natural feature introduced to the study accidentally.
Experimenter bias: measurements influenced by experimenter’s expectations regarding the outcome of the study.

Single-blind: the researcher is not aware of the expected results.
Double-blind: neither the participant nor the researcher know the expected results.

Question 51

What are demand characteristics and reactivity?

Answer 51

Any cues or features of the experiment that suggest the purpose and hypothesis of the study and/or influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way.
This can lead to reactivity, whereby participants modify their natural behaviour knowing they are in a study. (especially a problem in lab setting)

Question 52

What are the four different subject roles?

Answer 52

Good subject role: identified hypothesis and gives responses to support the hypothesis. (don’t want this)
Negativistic subject role: identified hypothesis and acts contrary to the hypothesis (sabotage).
Apprehensive subject role: act/answer in socially desirable manner (fake good).
Faithful subject role: follow instructions to the letter (highly desirable).

Question 53

What is population and sample?

Answer 53

Population is the entire set of individuals of interest to a researcher.
Sample is a set of individuals selected from a population that is intended to represent the population in a research study.

Target population: researcher’s population of interest
Accessible population: easily available segment of a target population. Researchers typically select their samples from this type of population.

Question 54

What is representativeness and selection bias?

Answer 54

A representative sample is a sample with the same characteristics as the population.
A biased sample is a sample with different characteristics from those of the population.
Selection bias or sampling bias occurs when participants are selected in a manner that increases the probability of obtaining a biased sample.

Question 55

What is the ideal sample size?

Answer 55

Minimum of 10 participants per treatment condition is required; ideally 25-30 participants.
Law of large numbers: the larger the sample size, the more accurately it represents the population

Question 56

What are the two sampling methods?

Answer 56

1. probability sampling: entire population is known, each individual must have equal or known probability of selection, and selection process is unbiased (random).
2. unprobability sampling: size of the population is unknown, probability each individual has to be selected is unknown, selection process is not unbiased (creates more biased sample).

Question 57

What are the probability sampling methods?

Answer 57

Simple random sampling: each individual has an equal chance of selection; choice of one individual does not influence the probability of choosing another individual. (Sampling with replacement: individual selected for the sample is returned to the population before the next selection; Sampling without replacement: removes each selected individual from the population before the next selection is made.)

Systematic random sampling: sample members from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point and a fixed, periodic interval (ex: every 3rd person on list).

Stratified random sampling: population is divided into subgroups (strata); equal numbers are then randomly selected from each of the subgroups (all subgroups have equal representation).

Proportionate Stratified random sampling: population is subdivided into strata; number of participants from each stratum is selected randomly (representative of population).

Cluster random sampling: clusters (preexisiting groups) instead of individuals are randomly selected from a list of all the clusters that exist within the population (easy).

Multistage random sampling: random sampling at several stages (cost and time effective).

Question 58

What are the nonprobability sampling methods?

Answer 58

Convenience Sampling: individual participants are obtained by selecting those who are available and willing (most commonly used; easy).

Quota Sampling: individuals are selected through convenience from each subgroup (represents population).

Purposive Sampling: researchers need prior knowledge about the purpose of their study in order to know who to select and how to approach eligible participants (known as judgemental/selective/subjective sampling).

Snowball Sampling: ask eligible individuals to recommend others who they may know who also meet the criteria.

Question 59

What are the basic categories of research ethics?

Answer 59

Responsibility toward participants: ensure the welfare and dignity/safety of both human and non-human research participants/subjects.
Responsibility toward science: ensure that public reports of research are accurate and honest.

Research gets retracted if it is unethical

Question 60

What are the historical roots of research ethics?

Answer 60

Nuremberg Code (first guidelines after WWII)
Milgram experiment
American Psychological Association
National Research Act
Belmont Report

Question 61

What are the three core principles of the Belmont Report?

Answer 61

1. Respect of persons (confidentiality, consent)
2. Beneficence (maximize benefits and minimize risks)
3. Justice (fairness)

Question 62

What is the TriCouncil Policy Statement?

Answer 62

Three agencies make up the Tri-Council:
-Canadian Institute’s of Health Research (CIHR)
-Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)
-Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC)
Three core principles:
1. Respect for Persons
2. Concern for Welfare (beneficence)
3. Justice

Question 63

What are the three ethical principles?

Answer 63

1. No harm: protection from physical & psychological harm; risks must be identified, minimized, and justified.
2. Informed consent: participants must be informed of what will be done to them & why, and have the right to withdraw at any time (voluntary participation). Deception: passive: leave out information. Active: alter information or confederates (actors).
3. Anonymity & confidentiality: anonymity ensures that data shared does not allow for the identification of an individual (codes assigned). Confidentiality ensures that the information obtained from a participant will be kept secret/private (encrypted files, locked copies).

Question 64

How does consent work regarding public info?

Answer 64

Research that relies exclusively on publicly available information does not require consent when:
(a) the information is legally accessible to the public and appropriately protected by law;
(b) the information is publicly accessible and there is no reasonable expectation of privacy.

Question 65

How does consent work regarding observation?

Answer 65

Consent is not required for the observation of people in public spaces where:
(a) there is no intervention staged by the researcher, or direct interaction with the individuals or groups;
(b) there is no reasonable expectation of privacy
(c) dissemination of research results does not allow identification of specific individuals.

Question 66

How does consent work regarding the internet?

Answer 66

Informed consent required when there is an expectation of privacy.
Two major problems: expectation of privacy; persistence & traceability of quotes

Question 67

How to protect anonymity when using the internet?

Answer 67

-Do not identify the name of the online community or provide the website address
-Anonymize and paraphrase quotations + use search engines to ensure they are not traceable

Question 68

Why is research on animals conducted?

Answer 68

-To learn more about animals.
-To learn more about humans.
-To conduct research that is impossible to do with humans.

Question 69

What are animal ethics?

Answer 69

Three Rs:
1. Replacing or avoiding animals in science;
2. Reducing the number of animals in science;
3. Refining care and procedures to minimize pain and distress
Guidelines:
-Proper care, treatment, & maintenance.
-Handlers must be properly trained (CCAC).

Question 70

When is an ethics committee required?

Answer 70

Whether doing research with humans or animals, researchers must apply to a research ethics committee for permission and approval. (University Human Research Ethics Committee; Animal Care Committee)

Question 71

What are safeguards to prevent fraud & plagiarism?

Answer 71

-Replication: Being able to replicate the research
-Peer review: Many random people editing/reviewing the research
-Watchdogs: People watching out for the “bad science”, publishing all the retractions so that researchers know not to follow/replicate those studies