Midterm

Question 1

Which situation below would tend to be the most psychologically comfortable (i.e., balanced)?

Answer 1

Hooty dislikes cats, and he dislikes his neighbor, Carl, who owns a several cats.

Two negatives, one positive- negatives must be even. 0, 2

Question 2

Festinger’s first hypothesis states that there are two major sources of cognition, namely:

Answer 2

a person’s own experience, and communication from other people

Question 3

Festinger refers to communication as being _______ and discusses its effects on ________:

Answer 3

indirect experience; cognition

Question 4

Festinger’s second hypothesis states that the impact of direct experience will exert pressure on a person’s cognitions to:

Answer 4

Conform to that experience

Question 5

Festinger’s third hypothesis states that the strength of the impact of a communication to make other cognitions conform to that communication, will vary with the:

Answer 5

Relationship between the recipient and the communicator

Question 6

Festinger further expands on his 3rd hypothesis by stating that the stronger the attraction on the recipient toward association with the communicator, the greater will be the impact of the communication on cognition. This is illustrated by the fact that recipients tend to trust in:

Answer 6

Communicators perceived as impartial

Question 7

According to Festinger, there are three possible relations which can exist between items of behavior and items of cognition, namely, consonance, dissonance and:

Answer 7

Irrelevance

Question 8

Festinger expands on his 3rd hypothesis by stating that the greater the “trustworthiness” of a communicator, the greater will be the impact of their communication on:

Answer 8

The recipient’s relevant cognitions

Question 9

Festinger’s 4th hypothesis gets to the heart of his theory by asserting that there exists a tendency to make one’s cognition and one’s behavior __________ with one another.

Answer 9

Consistent, balanced, harmonious, congruent

(All of the above, all synonyms)

Question 10

Festinger expands on his 4th hypothesis by stating that: Given a dissonance between an item of cognition and an item of behavior, there will be a tendency to change the:

Answer 10

Either the behavior to make it consonant with the cognition or the cognition to make it consonant with the behavior.

Question 11

Festinger’s 5th hypothesis states that if a consonance exists there will be resistance to changes in behavior or _________ which would introduce__________.

Answer 11

cognition; dissonance

Question 12

Fill in the blank with the exact word Festinger used for the question above about how Festinger’s 4th hypothesis gets to the heart of his theory by asserting that there exists a tendency to make one’s cognition and one’s behavior ______________ with one another.

Answer 12

consonant

Question 13

Why do people often selectively ignore evidence and information that contradicts their position?

Essay

Answer 13

People often selectively ignore evidence and information that contradicts their position because if they were to engage with said evidence/information, it could produce a change in their cognition that may create dissonance between their cognitions and their behaviors. Festinger notes in hypothesis 5, “If a consonance exists there will be resistance to changes in behavior or cognition which would introduce dissonance.” Per Cognitive Dissonance Theory, we seek to diminish dissonant states between cognitions and behaviors.

The more likely scenario is that people would engage in what Festinger refers to as “selective exposure,” meaning they actively seek out evidence/information that is consonant with their existing behaviors and cognitions.

Question 14

Why do people often selectively focus on evidence and information that supports their position?

Essasy

Answer 14

People often selectively focus on evidence and information that supports their position because they are wanting to maintain consonance and avoid dissonance between their behaviors and cognitions. By seeking out information that supports your previously held position, this reinforces consonance and allows people’s behaviors and thoughts to be in congruence with one another, creating a harmonious balance that Festinger states we strive to be in at all times.

Question 15

Why do people often trivialize or downplay certain of their own behaviors that would appear to be inconsistent with their beliefs?

Essay

Answer 15

People often trivialize or downplay certain aspects of their own behavior that would appear to be inconsistent with their beliefs because Cognitive Dissonance Theory states that people are always striving for a state of consistency between their cognitions and behaviors. Furthermore, it states there is resistance to alter cognitions or behaviors that would introduce dissonance into a consonant situation. Therefore by downplaying aspects of behavior, an individual is able to maintain that a consonance exists between their cognitions and behaviors, whereby magnifying the aspects of their behavior being downplayed may force a change in either the behavior or the cognition by introducing dissonance.

Question 16

“Diligence is a good thing, but taking it easy is much more— restful.”

Using cognitive dissonance theory, explain the motivation behind Mark Twain’s reasoning.

Essay

Answer 16

Using Cognitive Dissonance Theory to explain Mark Twain’s quote “Diligence is a good thing, but taking it easy is much more— restful,” is simple to do when you relate it to the photo above. The man in the photo is taking a break from his work while resting on a lawn chair. His decision to take a break from working (behavior) is justified and congruent with his reasoning (cognition) that being “restful” is more important or valuable than being “diligent.” By prioritizing being restful over being diligent, his choice to take a break from his work has created a consonant state between his behavior and cognition. This subsequent elimination of dissonance is consistent with Cognitive Dissonance Theory.

Question 17

The theory of psychological reactance predicts that when an individual’s perceived freedom is threatened by a proscribed attitude or behavior, the individual will experience a motivating pressure toward conforming with (i.e., agreeing with) the position advocated in the proscriptive message.

True/False

Answer 17

False

Question 18

Brehm hypothesized that the strength of psychological reactance is greatest when:

Answer 18

the importance of the free behaviors to an individual is high

Question 19

Brehm’s theory of psychological reactance asserts that, with regard to certain limited and specifiable areas of behavior, people have a distinct and strong preference to perceive themselves as masters of their own fate. This motivational force produces a need for:

Answer 19

autonomy and self-determination

Question 20

The term, “proscribed” means _______, whereas, the term “prescribed” means _______.

Answer 20

prohibited; advocated

Question 21

Reactance is motivated by the individual’s basic need for interdependence and affiliation with similar others

True/False

Answer 21

False

Question 22

Consequences of psychological reactance are that:

Answer 22

a threatened freedom can increase in attractiveness, the target may attempt to perform the threatened behaviors, and the target may derogate or feel hostility toward the source

Question 23

Studies indicate that throughout the human life cycle, reactance peaks briefly during adolescence, then gradually declines until it reaches its lowest level during old age.

True/False

Answer 23

False

Question 24

Reactance in response to certain messages may often be followed by:

Answer 24

source derogation (dissing the source), boomerang effect (doing the opposite of what is advocated), and increase in the attractiveness of the threatened freedom.

Question 25

Reactance theory predicts that the more explicit the intent of a persuasive message (i.e., the more it is spelled out in clear, straightforward language), the more receptive (open) the subject will be to its influence.

True/False

Answer 25

False

Question 26

Studies indicate reactance is tri-modal throughout the human life cycle, i.e., briefly peaking during three life phases, with the highest level occurring during adolescence.

True/False

Answer 26

True

Question 27

According to Miller (2015), a persuasive message followed by a restoration such as,“The choice is yours. It is up to you,” can serve to restore the receiver’s:

Answer 27

sense of autonomy and perceived freedom

Question 28

Miller (2015) assert ‘‘trait reactance’’ refers to:

Answer 28

a unique personality characteristic people exhibit across different situations.

Question 29

Psychological reactance is conceived as a(an) _______ directed toward the reestablishment of perceived freedom and free behaviors.

Answer 29

Motivational state

Question 30

Miller (2015) suggest that boomerang effects risk the prospect of having the source of a persuasive message (such as a parent or a school teacher) violate the Hippocratic oath, which says:

Answer 30

First do no harm

Question 31

Explicit commands that frequently use forceful adverbs such as ‘‘you ought,’’ ‘‘you must,’’ or ‘‘you should,’’ tell a person clearly and directly what to do, therefore, such highly explicit, directive language is often viewed as:

Answer 31

controlling and may contribute to a sense of threatened freedom

Question 32

The reading and lecture noted how psychological reactance theory predicts that the more directive and explicit a persuasive message is perceived to be, the more likely it is to be:

Answer 32

Rejected

Question 33

When we engage in “central route” processing, we attend very carefully to the persuasive message and carefully examine the arguments contained within the message.

TRUE/FALSE

Answer 33

True

Question 34

According to the ELM, the primary impact of persuasive communication depends upon:

Answer 34

Amount of elaboration in which the individucal will engage AND amount of issue-relevant thinking about an issue the individual will do.

Question 35

When we engage in peripheral route processing, we will likely reflect on issue-relevant concerns associated with the topic of the persuasive message

True/False

Answer 35

False

Question 36

When engaged in central-route processing, an individual’s motivation to elaborate is such that:

Answer 36

Thinking about the persuasive message typically willl be guided by focusing on argument strength.