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BIO 2EE3 > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Robert Hooke

A

Micrographia (first book to show observations under a microscope)

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2
Q

Van Leeuwenhoek

A

See microscopic life through microscope for the first time

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3
Q

Louis Pasteur (4 things)

A

Fermentation
Vaccines can be created by weakening microbes
Disproved spontaneous generation (swan neck flask)
Pasteurization

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4
Q

Germ Theory

A

Pasteur,Koch,others

Many diseases caused by microorganisms, can be passed from person to person

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5
Q

Edward Jenner

A

Vaccinated a boy with cow pox to render immunity to smallpox

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6
Q

Robert Koch

A

Germ theory

4 postulates

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7
Q

Causes of anthrax, tuberculosis, and cholera

A

Bacillus anthracis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Vibrio cholera

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8
Q

Koch’s postulates

A

Microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms with the disease, and not in healthy ones
Microorganism must be isolated from organism and grown in pure culture
Cultured microorganism should cause disaese when put in healthy microorganism
Microorganism must be isolated from new host, and should be identical to orgininal causitive agent

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9
Q

Joseph Lister

A

Antiseptics in surgery

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10
Q

Fanny Hesse

A

Agar as culturing medium

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11
Q

Alexander Fleming

A

Penicillin

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12
Q

Which microorganisms can synthesize vitamin B12

A

Archaea and bacteria only

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13
Q

Microorganism responsible for the plague

A

Yersinia pestis

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14
Q

Characteristics of life

A 
Metabolism
Growth
Reproduction
Homeostasis 
Evolution
Adaptation
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15
Q

Cell membrane function

A

Homeostasis

Controls flow of molecules into and out of cell

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16
Q

Proteins

A

50-55% dry cell weight
Composed of amino acids
Catalyze most cell reactions
Structural components

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17
Q

Nucleic acids

A

RNA 15-20% dry weight

DNA 2-5% dry weight

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18
Q

Lipids

A

10% dry weight

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19
Q

Polysaccharides

A

6-7% dry weight

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20
Q

When did the earliest microbes appear (origin of life)

A

3.5-4 billion ya

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21
Q

First oxygen producing bacteria

A

3 billion ya

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22
Q

Atmospheric oxygen

A

2 billion ya

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23
Q

When did complex eukarya originate

A

1.5 billion ya

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24
Q

Experiment which showed how microbial life arised

A

Miller
Showed organic molecules found in living cells could be synthesized from a mimicked primordial atmosphere
Boiling flask = ocean
Electrical sparks = lightning
Organic molecules including amino acids in collected sample

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25
Q

Yeast bacteria

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

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26
Q

Vibrio

A

Curved rod shaped bacteria

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27
Q

Spirilla

A

Spiral shaped bacteria

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28
Q

Pleiomorphic

A

Irreular shaped bacteria

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29
Q

FtsZ

A

Helps in cell division

Monomers form a Z ring which directs cell wall synthesis and contracts as cells divide by releasing subunits

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30
Q

MreB

A

Provides structure during cell wall formation
Leads to elongated cylinder
Non-spherical bacteria

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31
Q

ParM

A

Dircts plamid movement during cell division

Ensures each daughter cell gets a copy

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32
Q

Hypotonic

A

Greater solute concentration in cell

Cell swells

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33
Q

Hypertonic

A

Greater solute concentration outside cell

Cell shrivels

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34
Q

Symport

A

Both substances moving in the same direction through cell membrane

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35
Q

Antiport

A

Substances moving in opposite directions through cell membrane

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36
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Using a protein channel to move particles with the concentration gradient
No energy

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37
Q

Sec pathway

A

Pathway which proteins are exported through
SecB signal sequence
Delivery to SecA and then Sec YEG channel

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38
Q

Peptidoglycan composition

A

N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)

N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) with a small peptide chain

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39
Q

How is peptidoglycan made

A

NAM is made in the cytoplasm then linked to UDP then to bactoprenol
NAG is added
Bacteoprenol flips them to the periplasm
Polymeriztion and crosslinking

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40
Q

Bacitracin

A

Interferes with dephosphorylation of bactoprenol therefore interfering with peptidogylcan and cell wall synthesis

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41
Q

Lysozyme

A

Hydrolyzes beta1,4 linkages between NAG and NAM in bacteria

Degrades cell wall

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42
Q

Lysostaphin

A

Acts on peptidogylcan crossbridge

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43
Q

Beta lactam antibiotics

A

Bind to penicillin binding proteins preventing them from crosslinking peptidoglycan
Make cells prone to cell bursting
Acts on growing cells

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44
Q

Beta lactamase

A

Can hydrolyze C-N bond in beta lactam ring rendering antibiotic ineffective

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45
Q

Gram positive

A 
Purple stain
Thick peptidpglycan layer
Narrow periplasmic space
teichoic and lipoteichoic acids in peptidoglycan
Large pores in peptidoglycan
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46
Q

Gram negative

A

Pink stain
Thin peptidoglycan
Varying periplasmic space
Outer membrane with lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
anchored peptidogylcan by lipoproteins
Porins or TonB proteins transfer molecules to periplasmic space

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47
Q

Type________secretion system similar to flagella transports proteins directly from __________ through _________

A

III
Cytoplasm
Inner and outer membrane

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48
Q

Other motility strategies

A

Gliding motility

Actin based motility (pushed by polymers of actin)

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49
Q

Other adhesion strategies

A

Stalks (tubular extensions of cell envelope)

Polysaccharides (ex. Capsule)

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50
Q

Model fungi

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Cell walls of chitin
Used to make bread,beer, etc.

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51
Q

Penicillin is made by __________

A

Penicillium chrysogenum

Mould that appears in most homes

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52
Q

____________ species are of biomedical and industrial significance

A

Aspergillus

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53
Q

Model protozoa

A

Giardia lamblia
Old
Lacks mitochandria
Causes human disease (bever fever)

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54
Q

Model slime mold

A

Dictyostelium discoideum

Protozoan

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55
Q

Model algae

A

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Two flagella

56
Q

Nitroimidazole

A

Antibiotic used for anaerobic bacteria and protozoan
Reacts with reduced ferredoxin
Reduced nitroimidazole intermediates form linkages with critical cysteine bearing enzymes deactivating them

57
Q

Diseases caused by fungi and protozoa (eukaryal microbes)

A

Athletes foot, oral thrush, potato blight

58
Q

Eukarya vs archaea nucleosomes

A

Eukarya: tetramer histone, 60 nucleotide length
Archaea: octaner, 160 nucleotide length

59
Q

Archaeal plasma membrane

A

Gylcerol 1-phosphate rather than glycerol 3-phosphate
Isoprenoids instead of fatty acids
Ether not ester linkages

60
Q

Archaeal cell wall

A

Pseudopeptidoglycan/pseudomurein
NAG and NAT subunits
Beta 1,3 linkages
L rather than D amino acids

61
Q

Crenarchaeota

A

Archaeal phylum
20% of bacteria and archaea in marine environments
Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles (> 55 or 80 degrees)
Acidophiles
Barophiles (high pressures)
Many adaptations for survival
Mesophiles and psychrophiles (15-40 or <15 degrees)

62
Q

Euryarchaeota

A

Methanogens
Reduce co2 to produce ch4 and water
Energy released to fix carbon
Found in human gut and swamps

63
Q

Halophiles

A

Require NaCl at more than 1.5 M
Maintain high K+ concentration inside cell to offset high extracellular Na+ (to prevent denaturing proteins and DNA, high GC content and acidic proteins)

64
Q

Nanoarchaeota

A

One of smallest genomes

Possibly one of the smallest living organisms on earth

65
Q

Proteobacteria

A 
Gram negative
Flagellated
Similar to mitochandrial ancestor
MVP: E. coli, Yersinia pestis
Rod
66
Q

Firmicutes

A 
Gram positive
Low GC DNA content
Endospores
Round or rod
MVP: bacillus
Staphylococcus and streptococcus
67
Q

Cyanobacteria

A

Gram negative
Oxygenic photosynthesis
Amcestor of chloroplast
No flagella

68
Q

Actinobacteria

A

Gram positive
High GC DNA content
Common is soils
MVP: streptomyces (antibiotics)

69
Q

Bacteroidetes

A

Gram negative

Human microbiome

70
Q

Evidence of endosymbiotic theory

A

Mitochnadria and chloroplasts resemble bacteria in shape and size
Double membrane consistent with ingestion
Own DNA more similar to bacteria than eukary

71
Q

Viruses are non-living

A

Replicate with host cell machinery
Metabolically inert
No homeostasis

72
Q

Viral capsid

A

Protein around genome
Can be helical (contains ssRNA)
Icosahedral (20 sided polygon)

73
Q

Enveloped virus

A

Plasma membrane around capsid

Mainly associated with animal viruses

74
Q

Virus infection steps

A 
Attachment
Entry
Gene expression and protein production 
Genome replication 
Assembly and exit host
75
Q

Viral attachment

A

Uses attachment proteins

Tail fibers, spikes, capsid, etc

76
Q

Viral entry

A

Depend on host cell
Animal: receptor binding and endocytosis
Bacterial: injecting DNA through cell wall and membrane

77
Q

Lytic viruses

A

Infect cell, replicate, then released from cell

78
Q

Lysogenic phage

A

Can integrate their genome into host chromosome after entry instead of immediately lysing the cell

79
Q

Baltimore classification

A

Seperates viruses based on genome structure and replication strategy (7 categories)

80
Q

ICTV

A

Groups viruses into order, family, subfamily, genus, species

Based on morphology, genome, replication, host range

81
Q

Cultivating viruses: bacteriophages

A

Bacteriophages can added to liquid medium with bacteria to produce a lysate
Isolated with molten agar method

82
Q

Cultivating viruses: animal viruses

A

Virus added to cultured cells

83
Q

Where are most vaccines grow?

A

Chicken eggs

84
Q

Purifying viruses

A 
Differential centrifugation (centrifuge at low, medium, then high speed, virus in pellet)
Gradient centrifugation (tube with layers of sucrose, centrifuged, band of debris and band of virus)
85
Q

Quantifying viruses

A 
Plaque assay (virus diluted and placed on cells, count plaques)
Endpoint assay (amount of virus needed to induce cytopathic effect or to kill 50% of cells or subjects)
Direct count, EM (directly count)
86
Q

Macronutrients to build macromolecules

A

C, N, P, O, S

87
Q

Micronutrients to support biochemical processes

A

K, Na, Cl, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn, Co, Mo, Cu

88
Q

Anabolism

A

Biosynthesis, small to large molecules

89
Q

Catabolism

A

Large to small molecules

90
Q

3 things for metabolism to occur

A

Electron supply
Carbon supply
Energy supply

91
Q

Phototroph

A

Captures light energy to make ATP

92
Q

Chemotrophs

A

Capture energy from oxidation of reduced organic or inorganic compounds

93
Q

Organotrophs

A

Acquire electrons from organic molecules

94
Q

Lithotrophs

A

Acquire electrons from inorganic sources

95
Q

Autotrophs

A

Acquire carbon from inorganic sources

96
Q

Heterotrophs

A

Assimilate carbons from preexisting carbon forms

97
Q

Prototrophs

A

Cam synthesize all macromolecular precursors from single carbon source

98
Q

Auxotrophs

A

Unable to synthesize macromolecular precursors, must be supplemented with them in growth media

99
Q

Catalase

A

Decomposes toxic hydrogen peroxide

100
Q

Superoxide dismutase

A

Partitioning of superoxide radical into hydrogen peroxide and molecular oxygen

101
Q

Selective media

A

Isolation of microbes with particular properties

Ex crystal violet and bile salts inhibit gram positive bacteria

102
Q

Differential media

A

Allows certain microbes to be recognized based on visual reactions in the medium
Ex. Neutral red and lactose

103
Q

Measuring population growth

A

Direct count using a microscope slide or a Petroff-Hausser counting chamber
Viable cell counting by perfroming serial dilutions and counting colony forming units
Spectrophotometer to measure optical density
Chemostat (cell growth rate = dilution rate)

104
Q

Phases of a growth phase

A

Lag
Exponential
Stationary
Death

105
Q

CFU/ml equation

A

=(number of colonies)/ (dilution) x (volume plated in ml)

106
Q

Generation time equation

A

=(time)/3.32 x (logNt - logN0)

107
Q

Growth rate equation

A

= 3.32 x (logNt - logN0)/time

108
Q

Equation to describe a bacterial population in the exponential phase

A

Nt =N0 X2^n
Where Nt = population at time t
N0 = initial population at time t = 0
n = number of generations that elapsed between t = 0 and time t

109
Q

Equation for mean generation time (k)

A

k =n/t

110
Q

Embden-Meyerhof-Parmas (EMP) pathway

A

Most common glycolytic pathway

Glucose to 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

111
Q

Entner-Doudoroff pathway

A

Alyernative to EMP
Glucose to 2 pyruvate, 1 ATP, 1 NADH, 1 NADPH
Entry point for sugars into metabolism

112
Q

Pentose phosphate pathway

A

Glucose to 1 ATP and 2 NADPH

Produces carbon sugar precursors for other pathways

113
Q

Processes to oxidize NADH back to NAD+

A

Respiration (ETC) and fermentation

114
Q

3 fermentation types

A

Lactic acid fermentation
Alcohol fermentation
Mixed acid fermentation
All produce NAD+

115
Q

TCA/citric acid/krebs cycle

A

Oxidation of 1 molecule of pyruvate to produce 3 CO2 yields:
4 NADH, 1 FADH, 1 ATP
Twice this per glucose

116
Q

ETC

A

As electrons carried by NADH and FADH are passed through molecules in the ETC with increasing reducing potentials, a proton gradient is generated which is used to produce up to 34 ATP via ATP synthase
Oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor in aerobic respiration

117
Q

Protons pumped per NADH/NADPH

A

10

118
Q

Protons pumped per FADH2

A

6

119
Q

What powers the ETC and production of ATP

A

The proton motive force

120
Q

2 steps of photosynthesis

A 
Photophosphorylation (makes ATP)
Carbon fixation (dark), makes CO2 into organic molecules using ATP
121
Q

Photophosphorylation

A

Uses photopigments like chlorophyll which make up photosystems to capture energy from photons and transfers it to electrons (bacteriochlorophyll in bacteria)

122
Q

PS I and II

A

I or II used for anoxygenic photosynthesis

Both used in oxygenix photosynthesis in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria

123
Q

Calvin Cycle (dark reactions)

A

ATP and NADPH produced in light reactions used to produce carbon compounds from CO2
RuBisCO enzyme adds carbon from co2 to a 5 carbon, and the product is split to 3PG molecules which are converted to glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate used for biosynthesis
Uses 18 ATP, 12 NADPH per glucose

124
Q

Amino acids are formed from _______

A

Many glycolysis, pentose phosphate, and TCA cycle intermediates

125
Q

Lipids formed from________

A

TCA and glycolysis intermediates

126
Q

Nucleotides formed from ______

A

Pentose phosphate intermediates

127
Q

Bacteria, archaea and eukarya: Nuclear membrane

A

Bacteria and archaea no

Eukarya yes

128
Q

Bacteria, archaea and eukarya: organelles

A

Bacteria, archaea: rare/a few

eukarya: yes, many

129
Q

Bacteria, archaea and eukarya: plasma membrane

A

Bacteria and eukarya: similar

Archaea: different from both

130
Q

Bacteria, archaea and eukarya: RNA polym

A

Bacteria: single polymerase
Archaea: single polymerase similar to eukaryal polym II
Eukarya: polymerase I, II, III

131
Q

Bacteria, archaea and eukarya: histones

A

Archaea and eukarya: yes

Bacteria: histone like proteins

132
Q

Components of LB broth

A

Peptone
Yeast extract
NaCl

133
Q

LPS

A

Lipopolysaccharides
Lipids and polysaccharides
Stabilizes membrane of gram negative bacteria, illicits immune response in humans

134
Q

Lipoteichoic acid

A

Lipid and polysaccharide
Illicits immune response in humans
Peptidoglycan layer of gram +

135
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

Polysaccharide backbone crosslinked with peptides

Maintains cell shape and provides structure

136
Q

TonB receptors and porins

A

Proteins
Gram - outer membrane
TonB: Active transport across outer membrane
Porins: diffusion of nutrients and water

BIO 2EE3 (2 decks)

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