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Introduction to Academic Research > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Academic debate consists of

A
  • Relations, explanations, interactions
  • Argumentation
  • Persuasion
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2
Q

Academic research is

A

A structured process of asking questions, finding answers, and drawing conclusions (Kithin & Tate, 2000)

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3
Q

The steps in the research process

A
  • Research problem & objective
  • Theoretical and conceptual framework
  • Literature study
  • Research question(s) and hypothesis
  • Sample and research methods
  • Empirical evidence (data)
  • Results (in light of literature)
  • Conclusions and recommendations
  • Communication
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4
Q

What is the “hourglass model” of the research process?

A

It starts with a broad, wide scope at the beginning (research problem + objective, theoretical framework), then works toward a very specific scope (research question and hypothesis), and then turns into a wide scope again (conclusion and recommendations)

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5
Q

Two types of academic research

A
  • Literature research

- Empirical research

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6
Q

Literature research

A

Researching/reading other researches: academic literature

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7
Q

Empirical research

A

Concerns data that you have gathered yourself (primary data) or by others (secondary data)

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8
Q

What constitutes the research problem?

A
  • What issue do you want to address?
  • What do you want to achieve with your research?
  • What questions do you need to answer to achieve that?
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9
Q

What are the steps of the flow of science?

A

Data -> Information -> Knowledge -> Understanding

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10
Q

Leitheiser podcast

A

Citizenship and democracy. How governance takes place. In the context of social crises (inequality of wealth and political influence) and the environmental crises.

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11
Q

Leitheiser’s problem definition

A

Problems of unsustainability. If we don’t address them human society as we know it won’t be around much longer.

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12
Q

Meta-analysis

A

A technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together

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13
Q

Formulate the steps of the scientific of sociological research

A
  • Ask a question
  • Research existing sources
  • Formulate a Hypothesis
  • Design and conduct a study
  • Draw conclusions
  • Report results
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14
Q

Formulate the steps of the interpretive framework

A
  • Ask a question
  • Research existing sources
  • Decide a sample
  • Design and conduct a study
  • Draw conclusions
  • Report results
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15
Q

What is the main difference between the scientific method and the interpretive framework?

A

The scientific method aims for objectivity through external observation, while the interpretive framework aims to understand spatial phenomena from the standpoint of people experiencing them

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16
Q

What is meant by the “reliability” of a study?

A

Reliability constitutes the likelihood that a replication of the study will lead to the same outcomes

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17
Q

What is meant by the “validity” of a study?

A

Validity constitutes how well the study measures what it was intended to measure

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18
Q

Which other element next to reliability and validity is very importent in doing social research?

A

(Dealing with) personal values

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19
Q

Environmental determinism

A

(1800s-1920s) The study of understanding the cause-and-effect relationship between the physical environment (local conditions like climate, topography, soil characteristics) and culture

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20
Q

Ontology

A

Scientific study of what reality/truth is.

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21
Q

Epistemology

A

Scientific study of how we gain knowledge/get to know reality.

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22
Q

Nomothetic

A

Focuses on “the general”. Law-finding, generalizations. Closer related to realist ontology and etic epistemology.

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23
Q

Idiographic

A

Focuses on “the specific”. Closer related to relativist ontology and emic epistemology.

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24
Q

What are the two types of “ontology”?

A
  • Realism: a belief in one truth that is applicable to all beings even if there wouldn’t be any beings.
  • Relativism: truth depends on context/meaning
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25
Q

What are the two types of “epistemology”?

A
  • Etic: one needs to be an outside objectives observer

- Emic: best way to study something is to be a part of it (interaction with experience)

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26
Q

TO maps

A

Circular maps influenced by religious ideas.

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27
Q

Carl Ritter (1797 - 1859)

A
  • Writer of “die Erdkunde”.
  • Geography as physiology.
  • The physical shapes the social.
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28
Q

Alexander von Humboldt (1769 - 1859)

A
  • Comparing humans, animals, plants and landscapes of different regions.
    (Remember example of South American mountains and Ural mountains)
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29
Q

What was the difference between the time before Ritter and Von Humboldt and after?

A

Before: straightforward descriptions of parts of the earth’s surface.
After: explanations and generalisations about relationships between phenomena and spaces

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30
Q

Who conceived the Heartland theory and what does it mean?

A
  • Halford Mackinder
  • Political power is shaped by having control over land. He who would control the pivot area (large central part of the Eurasian continent) would control the rest of the world.
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31
Q

Regional geography

A

(1910s-1950s) The physical and natural environment codevelop in interaction.
Thought leaders: Sauer, Vidal de la Blache, Hartshorne

32
Q

Planning

A

(1930s-present) Postwar reconstruction, the rise of the welfare state, and rational use of space.
Thought leaders: van Vuuren, Steigenga, van Paassen.

33
Q

Spatial Science/quantitative revolution

A

(1950s-1960s) Imitating the natural sciences in search of general laws of geography. Spurred by the idea of being a “real” science, as well as the rise of new techologies.
Thought leaders: Schaefer, Haggett, Hagerstrand.

34
Q

Tobler’s 1st law of geography

A

Everything is related to everything, but near things are more related than distant things

35
Q

Marxist geography

A

(1960s-1980s) The birth of critical geography: a critique of spatial science.
Looking at underlying mechanisms of spatial paterns.
Thought leaders: Harvey, Massey, Peet.

36
Q

Humanist & behavioural geography

A

(1970s-1980s) Human experiences of space and place.
A return to individual behaviour in human geography.
Thought leaders: Tuan, Buttimer, Ley, Hagerstrand, Williams.

37
Q

Feminist geography & increasing plurality

A

Gender, heteronormativity & space; a call for situated knowledge.
Thought leaders: Massey, Rose, McDowell.

38
Q

Classical/traditional ways of doing science

A

Based on strong social relations, often religious

39
Q

Modern way of doing science

A

Based on rationality and a strong unified idea of progress (for example enlightenment in Europe)

40
Q

Post-modern way of doing science

A

Based on situated rationality and context-specific truths

41
Q

Put the theories in chronological order and according to the main scientific streams (classical, modern, post-modern)

A

Classical:
TO maps

Modern:
regional geography
spatial science
marxist geography
behavioural geography

Postmodern:
feminist geography
cultural turn
post-structuralism

42
Q

What are the four building blocks of a theory?

A
  • Constructs / concepts
  • Propositions
  • Hypotheses / logic
  • Boundary conditions
43
Q

Which elements constitute a good theory?

A
  1. Logical consistency (not self-contradict)
  2. Explanatory power (explain phenomenon)
  3. Falsifiability (potential to be disproven)
  4. Parsimony (a lot with a little/Ockam’s razor)
44
Q

What are the two approaches ot doing research?

A
  • Inductive approach:
    Observation -> pattern -> preliminary hypothesis -> theory
  • Deductive approach:
    Theory -> hypothesis -> observation -> confirmation / rejection
45
Q

What constitutes the theoretical framework?

A
  • Established by the researcher
  • A synthesis (extending previous research)
  • Traces history and context of theories/concepts
  • YOUR interpretation of relations
46
Q

What is a theory?

A
  • Coherent collection of concepts and ideas explaining real-world phenomena
  • It has stood the test of academic research
47
Q

Different types of literature

A
  • Non-scientific, popular-scientific, and academic texts
  • Academic articles: go through peer-review
  • Grey literature: useful but be cautious
48
Q

Academic text

A
  • Explicitly references other academic research
  • Presents new knowledge
  • Explicit and transparent research process
  • Peer-reviewed journal
49
Q

Approaches to theorizing:

A
  • Grounded theory building: built from empirical observations (new topics)
  • Bottom-up conceptual analysis (inductive)
  • Extend or modify existing theories in new context (deductive)
  • Apply existing theories to new concepts (deductive)
50
Q

How to recognise academic articles?

A
  • Look at the journal: check aims and scope of the journal and check the impact factor
  • Look at the author and where they work (at universities)
51
Q

How to recognise academic books?

A
  • Look at writer

- Look at publisher

52
Q

What is grey literature?

A

Generally trustworthy literature that has not gone through the process of peer review.

  • Conference papers
  • Working papers/papers in progress
  • PhD theses
  • Academic reports
53
Q

What is paraphrasing?

A

Using other’s ideas in your own words

Author, year

54
Q

What is quoting?

A

Using other’s exact words through the use of quotation marks

(Author, year, page) Max. 20 words

55
Q

Agency theory

A

(also: principal-agent theory) Classic theory in organisational economics that explains two-party relationships where the parties have non-aligning interests (employer-employee, buyers-sellers, etc.)

56
Q

Theory of planned behavior

A

(TPB) Individual behaviour is based on someone’s intention. The intention is shaped by how the behaviour is valued, the opinion of the environment, and the control over the behaviour.

57
Q

Innovation diffusion theory

A

Explains how innovations are adopted by a population of potential adopters:

  • innovation
  • communication channels
  • time
  • social system
58
Q

Five stages of innovation diffusion

A
  1. Knowledge: adopters learn about innovation
  2. Persuasion: adopters persuaded to try innovation
  3. Decision: adopters decide to adopt innovation (or not)
  4. Implementation: adopters start using innovation
  5. Confirmation: adopters decide to keep using innovation
59
Q

Elaboration likelihood model

A

Theory of attitude formation change. Someone’s attitude may be shaped by the central or peripheral route depending on the amount of thoughtful information processing (elaboration) required of people.

60
Q

Methods of social investigation:

A
  • Surveys
  • Field research
  • Experiment
  • Secondary data analysis
61
Q

Surveys

A 
Forms:
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
Advantages:
- Many responses
- Large samples
- Easy to chart
Challenges:
- Time consuming
- Difficult to encourage response
- Thoughts and beliefs, but not necessarily behaviour
62
Q

Field research

A 
Forms:
- Observation
- Participant observation
- Ethnography
- Case study
Advantages:
- Detailed, accurate real-life information
Challenges:
- Time consuming
- Captures behaviour, not thoughts and beliefs
- Qualitative data difficult to organize
63
Q

Ethnography

A

Extended observation of the social perspective and cultural values of an entire social setting.

64
Q

Experiment

A

Deliberate manipulation of social customs and mores.
Advantages:
- Tests cause- and effect relationships
Challenges:
- Hawthorne Effect
- Ethical concerns about people’s wellbeing

65
Q

What were core outtakes of the Middletown (Muncie) case study?

A
  • 18 months in an ‘ordinary’ US town
  • Focused on impact of industrialisation and urbanisation
  • Two classes: business and working class
  • Different lifes and goals, but same amenities (radios, cars, etc.)
  • Study became very popular with the wider public
66
Q

Heussenstamm experiment

A
  • Students from three ethnic backgrounds
  • Flawless driving record
  • Black panther bumper sticker
  • Drastic increase of pullover and fines
  • Experiment stopped due to money and willingness issues
67
Q

Secondary Data Analysis

A 
Forms:
- Analysis of government data
- Research historic documents
Advantages:
- Makes good use of previous sociological information
Challenges:
- Originally focused on other purpose than yours
- Hard to find
68
Q

Ethics

A

The moral distinction between right and wrong. Not necessarily illegal.

69
Q

Voluntary participation and harmlessness

A

Participants must be aware they participate volunarily and that they are not harmed as a result of their participation (or non-participation).

70
Q

Anonymity and confidentiality

A

Anonymity means both researchers and readres cannot identify a given response with the identity of a respondent. Confidentiality is a weaker form of protection than anonymity.

71
Q

Disclosure

A

Providing (some) information about the study to potential subjects before data collection to let them decide if they wish to participate in the study or not.

72
Q

A substantive argument deals with either

A
  • A core concern in an ongoing debate in your area. From engagement with established and recognised reference points.
    or
  • An issue that should be a core cncern within your field.
73
Q

Argument 1: identifying tensions

A
  • Contradiction argument type: two statements, themes or processes directly opose one another.
  • Deconstruction argument type: concerns the inadequacy of one’s categories of analysis. Focuses on: internal conflicts within object of enquiry and inevitable failure of anything to have fixed or final meaning
74
Q

Argument 2: cause and effect

A

Three ways:

  1. Identifying causal relationship within subject matter
  2. Identifying issue within causal relationship by another
  3. Applying inductive or deductive logic to one’s evidence
75
Q

To establish a plausible and convincing relationship between things:

A
  • look for any counter-evidence and engage with this in the argument
  • support the claimed relationship with a broad range of evidence
  • indicate clearly what kind and strength of relationship you are claiming
76
Q

What is the Hawthorne effect?

A

The effect of an intervention on a research participant which is solely attributed to the fact that the person is participating in a research. Usually positive: researched employees produce more or complain less.

Introduction to Academic Research (1 decks)

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