Midterm Flashcards
Academic debate consists of
- Relations, explanations, interactions
- Argumentation
- Persuasion
Academic research is
A structured process of asking questions, finding answers, and drawing conclusions (Kithin & Tate, 2000)
The steps in the research process
- Research problem & objective
- Theoretical and conceptual framework
- Literature study
- Research question(s) and hypothesis
- Sample and research methods
- Empirical evidence (data)
- Results (in light of literature)
- Conclusions and recommendations
- Communication
What is the “hourglass model” of the research process?
It starts with a broad, wide scope at the beginning (research problem + objective, theoretical framework), then works toward a very specific scope (research question and hypothesis), and then turns into a wide scope again (conclusion and recommendations)
Two types of academic research
- Literature research
- Empirical research
Literature research
Researching/reading other researches: academic literature
Empirical research
Concerns data that you have gathered yourself (primary data) or by others (secondary data)
What constitutes the research problem?
- What issue do you want to address?
- What do you want to achieve with your research?
- What questions do you need to answer to achieve that?
What are the steps of the flow of science?
Data -> Information -> Knowledge -> Understanding
Leitheiser podcast
Citizenship and democracy. How governance takes place. In the context of social crises (inequality of wealth and political influence) and the environmental crises.
Leitheiser’s problem definition
Problems of unsustainability. If we don’t address them human society as we know it won’t be around much longer.
Meta-analysis
A technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together
Formulate the steps of the scientific of sociological research
- Ask a question
- Research existing sources
- Formulate a Hypothesis
- Design and conduct a study
- Draw conclusions
- Report results
Formulate the steps of the interpretive framework
- Ask a question
- Research existing sources
- Decide a sample
- Design and conduct a study
- Draw conclusions
- Report results
What is the main difference between the scientific method and the interpretive framework?
The scientific method aims for objectivity through external observation, while the interpretive framework aims to understand spatial phenomena from the standpoint of people experiencing them
What is meant by the “reliability” of a study?
Reliability constitutes the likelihood that a replication of the study will lead to the same outcomes
What is meant by the “validity” of a study?
Validity constitutes how well the study measures what it was intended to measure
Which other element next to reliability and validity is very importent in doing social research?
(Dealing with) personal values
Environmental determinism
(1800s-1920s) The study of understanding the cause-and-effect relationship between the physical environment (local conditions like climate, topography, soil characteristics) and culture
Ontology
Scientific study of what reality/truth is.
Epistemology
Scientific study of how we gain knowledge/get to know reality.
Nomothetic
Focuses on “the general”. Law-finding, generalizations. Closer related to realist ontology and etic epistemology.
Idiographic
Focuses on “the specific”. Closer related to relativist ontology and emic epistemology.
What are the two types of “ontology”?
- Realism: a belief in one truth that is applicable to all beings even if there wouldn’t be any beings.
- Relativism: truth depends on context/meaning
What are the two types of “epistemology”?
- Etic: one needs to be an outside objectives observer
- Emic: best way to study something is to be a part of it (interaction with experience)
TO maps
Circular maps influenced by religious ideas.
Carl Ritter (1797 - 1859)
- Writer of “die Erdkunde”.
- Geography as physiology.
- The physical shapes the social.
Alexander von Humboldt (1769 - 1859)
- Comparing humans, animals, plants and landscapes of different regions.
(Remember example of South American mountains and Ural mountains)
What was the difference between the time before Ritter and Von Humboldt and after?
Before: straightforward descriptions of parts of the earth’s surface.
After: explanations and generalisations about relationships between phenomena and spaces
Who conceived the Heartland theory and what does it mean?
- Halford Mackinder
- Political power is shaped by having control over land. He who would control the pivot area (large central part of the Eurasian continent) would control the rest of the world.
Regional geography
(1910s-1950s) The physical and natural environment codevelop in interaction.
Thought leaders: Sauer, Vidal de la Blache, Hartshorne
Planning
(1930s-present) Postwar reconstruction, the rise of the welfare state, and rational use of space.
Thought leaders: van Vuuren, Steigenga, van Paassen.
Spatial Science/quantitative revolution
(1950s-1960s) Imitating the natural sciences in search of general laws of geography. Spurred by the idea of being a “real” science, as well as the rise of new techologies.
Thought leaders: Schaefer, Haggett, Hagerstrand.
Tobler’s 1st law of geography
Everything is related to everything, but near things are more related than distant things
Marxist geography
(1960s-1980s) The birth of critical geography: a critique of spatial science.
Looking at underlying mechanisms of spatial paterns.
Thought leaders: Harvey, Massey, Peet.
Humanist & behavioural geography
(1970s-1980s) Human experiences of space and place.
A return to individual behaviour in human geography.
Thought leaders: Tuan, Buttimer, Ley, Hagerstrand, Williams.
Feminist geography & increasing plurality
Gender, heteronormativity & space; a call for situated knowledge.
Thought leaders: Massey, Rose, McDowell.
Classical/traditional ways of doing science
Based on strong social relations, often religious
Modern way of doing science
Based on rationality and a strong unified idea of progress (for example enlightenment in Europe)
Post-modern way of doing science
Based on situated rationality and context-specific truths
Put the theories in chronological order and according to the main scientific streams (classical, modern, post-modern)
Classical:
TO maps
Modern: regional geography spatial science marxist geography behavioural geography
Postmodern:
feminist geography
cultural turn
post-structuralism
What are the four building blocks of a theory?
- Constructs / concepts
- Propositions
- Hypotheses / logic
- Boundary conditions
Which elements constitute a good theory?
- Logical consistency (not self-contradict)
- Explanatory power (explain phenomenon)
- Falsifiability (potential to be disproven)
- Parsimony (a lot with a little/Ockam’s razor)
What are the two approaches ot doing research?
- Inductive approach:
Observation -> pattern -> preliminary hypothesis -> theory - Deductive approach:
Theory -> hypothesis -> observation -> confirmation / rejection
What constitutes the theoretical framework?
- Established by the researcher
- A synthesis (extending previous research)
- Traces history and context of theories/concepts
- YOUR interpretation of relations
What is a theory?
- Coherent collection of concepts and ideas explaining real-world phenomena
- It has stood the test of academic research
Different types of literature
- Non-scientific, popular-scientific, and academic texts
- Academic articles: go through peer-review
- Grey literature: useful but be cautious
Academic text
- Explicitly references other academic research
- Presents new knowledge
- Explicit and transparent research process
- Peer-reviewed journal
Approaches to theorizing:
- Grounded theory building: built from empirical observations (new topics)
- Bottom-up conceptual analysis (inductive)
- Extend or modify existing theories in new context (deductive)
- Apply existing theories to new concepts (deductive)
How to recognise academic articles?
- Look at the journal: check aims and scope of the journal and check the impact factor
- Look at the author and where they work (at universities)
How to recognise academic books?
- Look at writer
- Look at publisher
What is grey literature?
Generally trustworthy literature that has not gone through the process of peer review.
- Conference papers
- Working papers/papers in progress
- PhD theses
- Academic reports
What is paraphrasing?
Using other’s ideas in your own words
Author, year
What is quoting?
Using other’s exact words through the use of quotation marks
(Author, year, page) Max. 20 words
Agency theory
(also: principal-agent theory) Classic theory in organisational economics that explains two-party relationships where the parties have non-aligning interests (employer-employee, buyers-sellers, etc.)
Theory of planned behavior
(TPB) Individual behaviour is based on someone’s intention. The intention is shaped by how the behaviour is valued, the opinion of the environment, and the control over the behaviour.
Innovation diffusion theory
Explains how innovations are adopted by a population of potential adopters:
- innovation
- communication channels
- time
- social system
Five stages of innovation diffusion
- Knowledge: adopters learn about innovation
- Persuasion: adopters persuaded to try innovation
- Decision: adopters decide to adopt innovation (or not)
- Implementation: adopters start using innovation
- Confirmation: adopters decide to keep using innovation
Elaboration likelihood model
Theory of attitude formation change. Someone’s attitude may be shaped by the central or peripheral route depending on the amount of thoughtful information processing (elaboration) required of people.
Methods of social investigation:
- Surveys
- Field research
- Experiment
- Secondary data analysis
Surveys
Forms: - Questionnaires - Interviews Advantages: - Many responses - Large samples - Easy to chart Challenges: - Time consuming - Difficult to encourage response - Thoughts and beliefs, but not necessarily behaviour
Field research
Forms: - Observation - Participant observation - Ethnography - Case study Advantages: - Detailed, accurate real-life information Challenges: - Time consuming - Captures behaviour, not thoughts and beliefs - Qualitative data difficult to organize
Ethnography
Extended observation of the social perspective and cultural values of an entire social setting.
Experiment
Deliberate manipulation of social customs and mores.
Advantages:
- Tests cause- and effect relationships
Challenges:
- Hawthorne Effect
- Ethical concerns about people’s wellbeing
What were core outtakes of the Middletown (Muncie) case study?
- 18 months in an ‘ordinary’ US town
- Focused on impact of industrialisation and urbanisation
- Two classes: business and working class
- Different lifes and goals, but same amenities (radios, cars, etc.)
- Study became very popular with the wider public
Heussenstamm experiment
- Students from three ethnic backgrounds
- Flawless driving record
- Black panther bumper sticker
- Drastic increase of pullover and fines
- Experiment stopped due to money and willingness issues
Secondary Data Analysis
Forms: - Analysis of government data - Research historic documents Advantages: - Makes good use of previous sociological information Challenges: - Originally focused on other purpose than yours - Hard to find
Ethics
The moral distinction between right and wrong. Not necessarily illegal.
Voluntary participation and harmlessness
Participants must be aware they participate volunarily and that they are not harmed as a result of their participation (or non-participation).
Anonymity and confidentiality
Anonymity means both researchers and readres cannot identify a given response with the identity of a respondent. Confidentiality is a weaker form of protection than anonymity.
Disclosure
Providing (some) information about the study to potential subjects before data collection to let them decide if they wish to participate in the study or not.
A substantive argument deals with either
- A core concern in an ongoing debate in your area. From engagement with established and recognised reference points.
or - An issue that should be a core cncern within your field.
Argument 1: identifying tensions
- Contradiction argument type: two statements, themes or processes directly opose one another.
- Deconstruction argument type: concerns the inadequacy of one’s categories of analysis. Focuses on: internal conflicts within object of enquiry and inevitable failure of anything to have fixed or final meaning
Argument 2: cause and effect
Three ways:
- Identifying causal relationship within subject matter
- Identifying issue within causal relationship by another
- Applying inductive or deductive logic to one’s evidence
To establish a plausible and convincing relationship between things:
- look for any counter-evidence and engage with this in the argument
- support the claimed relationship with a broad range of evidence
- indicate clearly what kind and strength of relationship you are claiming
What is the Hawthorne effect?
The effect of an intervention on a research participant which is solely attributed to the fact that the person is participating in a research. Usually positive: researched employees produce more or complain less.
