Midterm Flashcards
What was early conservation in western societies linked to a lot?
- White racial superiority
- Colonialism
- “Christian man’s” dominion over Earth
- Ethnic cleansing
- Important for conservation today (but still wrong & caused neg impacts)
What is conservation?
The desire to protect something we value in nature
- Anthropocentric (human focused) by definition
- Views & applications change as societal attitudes towards nature change
What does zeitgeist mean?
Defining morals & attitudes of a society during a particular time period
What are the earliest protected lands?
Tokugawa period of Japan (1603-1867)
- Fuedal lords land protected from commoners FOR timber preservation (not wildlife
- First evidence of forest replantation
Medieval Europe
- Royal Forests for hunting wild animals (for rich only)
- Employed game wardens & gamekeepers
In early conservation, what was the value of wild spaces?
Timber
Food
Social status
Who was Charles Waterton?
Walled off his estate in 1821 to exclude poaches & encourage birds
Was considered eccentric
Where was the “birth” of modern conservation?
USA
First colonists in mid 1800s
Still conserved land for human use, only difference was the land was open to everyone
What 3 things occurred in the US in the 1800s to shift public perception of natural spaces?
Literacy authors publishing trancendentalist style writing
- Henry David Thoreau’s “Walden” in 1854
The closing of the American frontier (1890)
- Thought the land was endless (realized it wasn’t)
The catastrophic decline of the plains bison (1884)
What is transcendentalism?
Romanticized nature
Inherent goodness of nature & being close to nature
Allowed people who didn’t experience nature themselves to live vicariously through the writings
What was the importance of William Henry Harrison Murray writing “Adventures in the Wilderness”?
Sparked modern outdoor/camping movement
Early campers called Murray’s Fools
What happened to the plains bison?
Originally 45mill individuals
- Became 325 by 1884 (about 5mill killed/year)
Killed to:
- Weakend & displace native people who depended on bison
- Was a uniquely “American experience” to kill them
Settlers didn’t realize they could lose this “iconic species” of the American West until the native people “threat” declined and they saw the low numbers
What happened to the Passenger pigeon?
Extinct by late 1800s
Made people aware that they could lose species
What were the three thoughts of what to do with land resources in America in late 1800s?
Laissez-faire
Conservationists (won due to Roosevelt)
Preservationists
What is Laissez-faire?
Ownership should have priority to land (unrestricted rights)
- The current policy
What are Conservationists?
Long term management of natural resources should be managed by the government Natural resources are for economic use Supporters: - Big game hunters (Teddy Roosevelt) - Ornithologists (John James Audubon) - Scientists - Timber industry
What are Preservationists?
Natural spaces should be preserved independent of its use as a resource
Inherent value in nature
Famous supporter:
- John Muir (Co-founded Sierra Club)
How much land did President Roosevelt protect and how?
230mill acres (1mill km^2)
New concept for a president
Resources are for human use, wild spaces are to be set aside for human recreational activities
- Forests managed in the utilitarian-style (trees grow until growth rate declines, then harvest)
- No bag limits
What were the categories of protected land by Roosevelt?
National forests (for timber use) - Created National Forest Service to mange output & quality Game preserves (for hunting terrestrial animals) Bird preserves (for hunting bird species)
What happened to birds in 1800s?
People viewed birds by shooting them then looking at them up close
- Binoculars were not used until Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey wrote “Birds Through an Opera Glass” in 1889
Stuffed birds & feathers were popular fashion (plume trade)
- 5mill birds killed/year
- Lost about 96% of shore birds in Florida
- Contributed to extinction of Carolina parakeet in US
What was the plume trade?
Harvesting of birds for feathers for fashion
What were “pest species” in late 1800s?
Any animal that impacted game numbers Were legally killed in protected areas Included: - Wolves - Bears - Cougars - Birds of prey Many species (including Easter Cougar) went extinct Ecosystems (food webs) were not understood so no one stopped this
What were the major ecology breakthroughs in the 1900s?
The biosphere concept (Vladimir/Vernadsky: 1926)
Producers, consumers, reducers exist (August Thienemann: 1926)
Food webs/chains (Charles Elton: 1927)
Ecosystem concept (Authur Tansley: 1935)
Trophic levels (Raymond Lindeman: 1942)
Who were important preservationists during conservationist times?
Rosalie Barrow Edge
Aldo Leopold
Disney’s Bambi
Sir Julian Huxley
Who was Rosalie Barrow Edge?
Interested in birdwatching (w/ binoculars) in 1920s
- Protested against killing to view birds
Joined National Audubon Society
- Audobon Society didn’t object to mass cull of raptors
- She showed up to 25th Audubon Annual meeting (1929) to protest against “pest” species extermination
- She sued them to gain access to their mailing list & won: contact all 11,000 members with info about the Audubon society prejudice in protecting birds
Formed the Emergency Conservation Committee in 1929
- Advocated for protecting all species while they were common so they did not become rare
Became major opponent of plume trade
In 1934, learned of PA tradition of slaughtering raptors migrating over the Appalachian trail
- Leased.& purchased “Hawk Mountain” to create the “Hawk Mountain Sanctuary” to preserve native species
She also created the Olympic & Kings Canyon National Parks
What happened to bald eagles in Alaska?
Considered “pest” species in 1900s
Mass cull of 70,000
What was important about the “Hawk Mountain Sanctuary”?
Became the first conserved area to specifically preserve native species for the sake of preservation, not for human use
Done by Rosalie Barrow Edge
About 20,000 raptors migrate/year
- Annual bird counts here are the best data on long term bird of prey number on East coast of NA
- Data used by Rachel Carson in “Silent Spring”
What happened to the Association of Audubon Societies?
Renamed to the National Audubon Society
Distanced itself from predator control
Began conserving all bird species
T. Gilber Pearson was a president
Who was Aldo Leopold?
Founder of the science of Wildlife Management
- First professor of the field
Highly influential in defining modern environmental ethics
Changed public view through a book, “A Sand County Almanac” in 1949
- Observations & essays about the nature landscapes on his property that he had restored
1943: Aldo Leopold encouraged Wisconsin to create an “anterless” deer season
- So females & young bucks could be targeted to decrease exploding deer populations
- Because of Bambi, the public was outraged
What was the Bambi Effect?
In film, predators & prey live in uptopia
- Only fear humans
Before, hunting deer was normal
- Shown every few years from 1940-1980, causing the next generation to vilify hunting deer
Public created a strong pressure against hunting deer, called the “bambi effect”
What is an example of the Bambi Effect?
MIchel-Chartrand Park in Longueuil, QC Can support 10-15 deer - Currenlty has 70 Causes: - Devaste ecology of two local parks - Multiple car accidents - Residents feed deer so deer aren't afraid of humans - Not enough food for deer Hunting not allowed Public backlash from proposed cull
Who was Sir Julian Huxley?
First director-general of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) (1946)
Founder of IUCN (international union for the conservaiton of nature) (1948)
- Created IUCN redlist (first in 1964) (originally called the red data book)
Co-founder of WWF (1961)
- Created to safe rarest species internationally
Before 1940s, nothing done to help endangered species; then Huxley came:
- Researchers sent around the globe to interview locals (what species were disappearing)
- Created the organizations
What was the purpose of the WWF?
Would run conservaiton programs implemented by organization on the ground
Initial targets:
- Species not in Europe or NA
- African countries just getting their independence back
African countries:
- WWF wanted to create conservation regions in their border
- Reluctant because: outsiders managing resources, taking resource use/decision out of their hands; were the species being protected for Africans or the white man?
- Fears were right: in 2019, WWF removed indigenous groups from land for “parks”
What was “Silent Spring”?
Published in 1962 by Rachel Carson
Documented effects of DDT on bird populations
- Was first thought to be non-toxic to vertebrates
Rosalie Edge noticed declines in bird numbers & Rachel Carson figured out why
- DDT interfered with calcium metabolism, causing eggshells to be too thin to incubate (females would crush them)
- Caused massive declines in several raptors (bald eagles almost went extinct)
*First time people realized herbicides & pesticides could be harmful to wildlife
* People saw a mother sitting on a nest of broken eggs = powerful image (raptors were valued by the public in the 60s)
Book became spearhead for growing environmentalism movement
What were the benefits of DDT when it was first used?
Cheap
Long lasting
4x more effective at killing mosquitoes than other pesticides
- First pesticide that could kill multiple insect species
- Dr. Paul Muller was important in discovering the insect-killing properties
What studies were done on DDT?
Toxicity studies - Only acute toxicity (no chronic/long term) - Had half-life of 6.3 years in people - Were flawed (small sample size...) No persistence studies done - Broke down rapidly in sunlight - Had half-life of 15 years in soil
What is bioaccumulation?
Toxin levels buiding in an individual during its lifetime
What is biomagnification?
Toxin levels concentrating in higher trophich levels compared to lower ones (build in ecosystem)
What did Silent Springs do against DDT?
1973: DDT was banned except for control of insect-borne diseases in USA
1983: DDT was banned in Canada completely
1997: DDT was banned except against Malaria programs in Mexico
What is environmentalism?
Protection & improving the health of the environment
Difference to conservation (same outcome, different goals):
- Conservation: conservation of animal & plant life
- Environmentalism: role & preservation of entire ecosystems
The two concepts are stilled linked tho
What was passed due to environmentalism?
Environmental Protection Agency (1970) Endangered Species Act (1973): US Species at Risk Act (2002): CA Converntion of BIological Diversity (1993) - Multilateral treaty Organizations: - WWF (1961) - Greenpeace (1971): Vancouver
What were some targeted media campaigns to inc. public opinion?
WWF against extinction
6-pack rings on animal pictures
Many more
What is Maximum sustained yield?
The largest yield that can be taken from a species’ stock over an indefinite period without decreasing the growth rate of the population
Found in 1955
What were the fields that overlap with conservation to make important discoveries?
1955: Maximum sustained yield
1958: Invasive species
1960: Top-down trophic cascade
1964: Hamilton’s Rule; Co-evolution
1969: Metapopulation; keystone species
1972: Gap-model forest growth
1978: population-viability analysis
1980: Biodiversity
1988: Hotspots
1984: Umbrella species
1995: Wildlife corridor
What is top-down trophic cascade?
A model that postulates that predation regulates an ecological community
Predation controls community organization because predators limit herbivores, herbivores limit plants, and plants limit nutrients
What is Hamilton’s rule?
Animals are more likely to help each other if they are related
- In social animals only
Relatedness is measured on a scale from 0-1
- Full siblings & parents-children: .5
- Grandparents-grandchildren: .25
- Cousins: .125
What is altruism in nature?
When the benefits (B) of the act, multiplied by the relatedness (r), exceeds the cost to the self (C)
rB>C
What are meta-populations?
All the individual isoalted populations of an area still capable of interbreeding, but otherwise are reproductively isolated
What are keystone species?
A species that has a disproportionately large impact on the ecosystem
What is the Gap-model forest growth?
Gaps in teh forest canopy caused by the death of mature trees open up new space for trees to grow
What is population-viablitiy analysis?
Utilizing modelling ot determine the likelihood that a species will go extinct
What are biodiversity hotspots?
Species biodiversity is not distributed equally on the planet, some regions have much higher biodiversity
What are umbrella species?
A charismatic species which the public will want to protect
Protecting this species habitat also indirectly protects the habitat of other species
What is a wildlife corridor?
Patches of natural habitat that facilitate the movement of wildlife between isolated large conserves areas
What is the difference between non-native species & invasive species?
Invasive speces cause negative impact on the ecosystem
Non-native species says nothing about their impact
What is the conservaiotn-far approach?
When a foreign conservation group interfers in other countries for the purpose of conservation
- Usually smaller, less economically capable countries
- WWF does this a lot
The goals of the international organization are placed above the needs of the local community
What are Indigenous & local involvement in colonialism conservation?
Both government & NPOs are reachign out & working with indigenous & local communities for conservation
- These people previously ignored or persecuted
What is evidence-based conservation?
Conservation based on primary studies with controlled experimental design
First proposed in 2000
Before: “best guesses” & individual experience were used instead
What is new forestry?
View of foresty as a tool to both produce timber & maintain functional ecosystems with high biodiversity
Replacing utilitarianism approach to forestry
- Monoculture plantations
- Culling mature trees
- * Some European countries still use utilitarian forestry
What is the dark-sky preserve?
Adapted from astronomy to help nocturnal species
- Reduce or eliminate light pollution at night
Largest one is in CA; Wood Buffalo National Park
DDT can do what through the food chain?
Bioaccumulate
Biomagnify
What are the new frameworks of conservation?
Evidence-based conservation
New forestry
Dark sky preserves
How was the idea of land acquisition formed?
Conservation & preservationist movements
Teddy Roosevelt saw wanted waste of natural resources (needed regulation)
- When he became president, passed the “Square Deal”
Who was Teddy Roosevelt to conservationists?
Leaders of the conservationist movement in American politics
Avid hunter/outdoorsman
Loved animals
- Refused to shoot a bear his friends had tied down for him (said it was unsportsmanlike
- People were enamored by his “honorable act”
Misused his executive power to pass conservation legislation without approval
- Issued 1,081 orders
What was the “Square Deal”?
Had four pillars
- One was the conservation of natural spaces
What did Roosevelt do as president?
Passed 1,081 executive orders Established US Forest Service Created 150 National Forests 18 National Monuments 5 National Parks 51 Bird Reserves 4 Game Reserves Created Antiquities Act * Protected 130mill acres of land
What was the Antiquities Act?
Act gave the president the right to create national monuments for conservation
Has been used 100 times since its passing
When did Canada Amend the legislation governing National Parks and why?
1988
To focus on ecological integrity
What was the first Canadian National Park?
1883: Hot Springs discovered in Sulphur Mountains of Alberta
- Government bought it and called it public lands
Sir John A. Macdonald (prime minister) set aside 26km^2 of land
- This was used as a public bath (Called the Cave and Basin Hot Spring)
- Today, closed for public use
Land around the hot springs was considered unusually natural beauty
- 1887: became Banff National Park (from the Rocky Mountain Parks Act)
- Became a big tourist destination & building was done
What happened to Banff National Park after building?
Polluted surrounding wetlands
Led to extinction of the Banff Longnose Dace
- Was found only in the wetlands fed by two hot springs in the Sulfur Mountains
- Not mentioned today
What was the main problem with National Parks in Canada?
“Wilderness untouched by man”
- Indigenous communities lived there
They didn’t want human activities, so outlawed traditional hunting, gathering, & communities (indigenous livelihoods basically)
Creating the Banff, Stanely Park, Algonquin, & Riding Mountain National Park came with the forced removal of native people
- *At Riding Mountain National Park, empty homes were set on fire so people couldn’t return
* Largely unacknowledged by our National Parks in NA
These exclusionary policies didn’t change until after the 1970s
How much land is currently protected in Canada as a National Park (government owned)?
3% (Most of Canada is undeveloped, so why isn’t it protected?)
USA = 12%
Japan = 30%
What are the main NPOs in Canada to protect land?
Nature Conservancy
Ducks Unlimited
What has Nature Conservancy (NPO) done for land protection?
Since 1962
Buy private land and protect it from conservation
Today: has protected 140,000km^2 over 1,000 properties
- About 1/2 of what the government has protected in 150 years
- Includes Darkwoods Conservation Area
Funds raised through donations only
Work with local indigenous people, scientists, & volunteers
- To maintain ecological value/restore damaged natural sites
What is Darkwoods Conservation Area?
In BC
Largest single private conservation project in Canadian history
55,000 ha
What has Ducks Unlimited Canada (NPO) done for land protection?
Created 1937
Majority of members were hunters responsible for causing rapid decline of waterfowl
- 90% of current members are hunters
Focus on wetland habitat for waterfowl specifically
- Have conserved over 200mill acres across CA & USA
- Covers migratory routes of species internationally
Preserves & manages habitat owned by a range of owner types (doesn’t purchase land themselves): governments, private homeowners, other NPOs
* People protect what they value
When did land acquisition begin?
Late 19th century
Before ecology & conservation biology in mid-late 20th century
* So not much science behind it
Why was the Bengal Tiger Conserved?
Panthera tigris tigris (subspecies in India)
In late 1800s, pop was 58,000
By 1970s, pop was 2,000
- Was then considered India’s national animal: banned hunting, set up conservation plan called Project Tiger
Now, population is between 2,500-3,000 (success)
How was the Bengal Tiger Conserved?
50 reserves set up under Project Tiger - 85% of tigers today ar in reserves - Now reaching carrying capacity Most reserves below 1,500km^2 - Males need 60-150km^2 - Females need 20-60km^2
What is the SLOSS debate?
Ongoing since the 1970s
The size vs number of reserves in conservation
- Single large or several small (SLOSS)
- Important scientific debate (most don’t have acronyms)
What are the pros & cons of large reserves?
Pro: - Minimize edge effect Cons: - Concentrates most individuals in one place so more vulnerable to chance events - Not good for migratory species - Less biodiversity
What are the pros & cons of smaller reserves?
Pros:
- Potentially preserve a greater diversity of ecosystems
- Better for migratory species (smaller reserves connected by wildlife corridors
- Less likely for one chance event to destroy species
Cons:
- More edge effect
- Lower carrying capacity
What is the edge effect?
Habitat quality tends ot be lower on the edge of a continuous habitat than the center
- Greater frequency of disturbances, fewer resources…
What is an example of a chance event harming a large reserve?
Canine distemper virus spread form dogs to wild carnivores
Killed 28 of the remaining 600 Asiatic lions in Gir Naitonal Park in India
- The largest remaining population of this species in the world
What is the carrying capacity?
The number of an individual species that a habitat can support based on both the available resources in that habitat and the biological needs of the species
What happened to the Bengal tiger when carrying capacity was neared?
Move adolescents into new areas to maintain genetic diversity
- Wildlife corridors are becoming increasingly fragmented
- Shipping them
What is translocation?
The process of moving animals & plants between sites for the purposes of conservation
Risk of mortality depends on:
- How long translocation lasts
- Biology of species (prone to stress?)
- Restraint methods needed (sedatives needed?)
- Capture method used (chased, trapped?)
What is the problem of translocation in social species?
Ex. Elephants
Very social, learn behavior from adults
If the young are removed, they don’t learn everything and gain temper issues
- Don’t learn what enemies to distinguish
What are the alternatives to translocation?
Reserves where animal doesn’t leave park
Ex. Ranthambore tiger reserve supports 60 tigers, half descended from one female
