Midterm Flashcards
(220 cards)
1
Q
What was early conservation in western societies linked to a lot?
A
- White racial superiority
- Colonialism
- “Christian man’s” dominion over Earth
- Ethnic cleansing
- Important for conservation today (but still wrong & caused neg impacts)
2
Q
What is conservation?
A
The desire to protect something we value in nature
- Anthropocentric (human focused) by definition
- Views & applications change as societal attitudes towards nature change
3
Q
What does zeitgeist mean?
A
Defining morals & attitudes of a society during a particular time period
4
Q
What are the earliest protected lands?
A
Tokugawa period of Japan (1603-1867)
- Fuedal lords land protected from commoners FOR timber preservation (not wildlife
- First evidence of forest replantation
Medieval Europe
- Royal Forests for hunting wild animals (for rich only)
- Employed game wardens & gamekeepers
5
Q
In early conservation, what was the value of wild spaces?
A
Timber
Food
Social status
6
Q
Who was Charles Waterton?
A
Walled off his estate in 1821 to exclude poaches & encourage birds
Was considered eccentric
7
Q
Where was the “birth” of modern conservation?
A
USA
First colonists in mid 1800s
Still conserved land for human use, only difference was the land was open to everyone
8
Q
What 3 things occurred in the US in the 1800s to shift public perception of natural spaces?
A
Literacy authors publishing trancendentalist style writing
- Henry David Thoreau’s “Walden” in 1854
The closing of the American frontier (1890)
- Thought the land was endless (realized it wasn’t)
The catastrophic decline of the plains bison (1884)
9
Q
What is transcendentalism?
A
Romanticized nature
Inherent goodness of nature & being close to nature
Allowed people who didn’t experience nature themselves to live vicariously through the writings
10
Q
What was the importance of William Henry Harrison Murray writing “Adventures in the Wilderness”?
A
Sparked modern outdoor/camping movement
Early campers called Murray’s Fools
11
Q
What happened to the plains bison?
A
Originally 45mill individuals
- Became 325 by 1884 (about 5mill killed/year)
Killed to:
- Weakend & displace native people who depended on bison
- Was a uniquely “American experience” to kill them
Settlers didn’t realize they could lose this “iconic species” of the American West until the native people “threat” declined and they saw the low numbers
12
Q
What happened to the Passenger pigeon?
A
Extinct by late 1800s
Made people aware that they could lose species
13
Q
What were the three thoughts of what to do with land resources in America in late 1800s?
A
Laissez-faire
Conservationists (won due to Roosevelt)
Preservationists
14
Q
What is Laissez-faire?
A
Ownership should have priority to land (unrestricted rights)
- The current policy
15
Q
What are Conservationists?
A
Long term management of natural resources should be managed by the government Natural resources are for economic use Supporters: - Big game hunters (Teddy Roosevelt) - Ornithologists (John James Audubon) - Scientists - Timber industry
16
Q
What are Preservationists?
A
Natural spaces should be preserved independent of its use as a resource
Inherent value in nature
Famous supporter:
- John Muir (Co-founded Sierra Club)
17
Q
How much land did President Roosevelt protect and how?
A
230mill acres (1mill km^2)
New concept for a president
Resources are for human use, wild spaces are to be set aside for human recreational activities
- Forests managed in the utilitarian-style (trees grow until growth rate declines, then harvest)
- No bag limits
18
Q
What were the categories of protected land by Roosevelt?
A
National forests (for timber use) - Created National Forest Service to mange output & quality Game preserves (for hunting terrestrial animals) Bird preserves (for hunting bird species)
19
Q
What happened to birds in 1800s?
A
People viewed birds by shooting them then looking at them up close
- Binoculars were not used until Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey wrote “Birds Through an Opera Glass” in 1889
Stuffed birds & feathers were popular fashion (plume trade)
- 5mill birds killed/year
- Lost about 96% of shore birds in Florida
- Contributed to extinction of Carolina parakeet in US
20
Q
What was the plume trade?
A
Harvesting of birds for feathers for fashion
21
Q
What were “pest species” in late 1800s?
A
Any animal that impacted game numbers Were legally killed in protected areas Included: - Wolves - Bears - Cougars - Birds of prey Many species (including Easter Cougar) went extinct Ecosystems (food webs) were not understood so no one stopped this
22
Q
What were the major ecology breakthroughs in the 1900s?
A
The biosphere concept (Vladimir/Vernadsky: 1926)
Producers, consumers, reducers exist (August Thienemann: 1926)
Food webs/chains (Charles Elton: 1927)
Ecosystem concept (Authur Tansley: 1935)
Trophic levels (Raymond Lindeman: 1942)
23
Q
Who were important preservationists during conservationist times?
A
Rosalie Barrow Edge
Aldo Leopold
Disney’s Bambi
Sir Julian Huxley
24
Q
Who was Rosalie Barrow Edge?
A
Interested in birdwatching (w/ binoculars) in 1920s
- Protested against killing to view birds
Joined National Audubon Society
- Audobon Society didn’t object to mass cull of raptors
- She showed up to 25th Audubon Annual meeting (1929) to protest against “pest” species extermination
- She sued them to gain access to their mailing list & won: contact all 11,000 members with info about the Audubon society prejudice in protecting birds
Formed the Emergency Conservation Committee in 1929
- Advocated for protecting all species while they were common so they did not become rare
Became major opponent of plume trade
In 1934, learned of PA tradition of slaughtering raptors migrating over the Appalachian trail
- Leased.& purchased “Hawk Mountain” to create the “Hawk Mountain Sanctuary” to preserve native species
She also created the Olympic & Kings Canyon National Parks
25
What happened to bald eagles in Alaska?
Considered "pest" species in 1900s
| Mass cull of 70,000
26
What was important about the "Hawk Mountain Sanctuary"?
Became the first conserved area to specifically preserve native species for the sake of preservation, not for human use
Done by Rosalie Barrow Edge
About 20,000 raptors migrate/year
- Annual bird counts here are the best data on long term bird of prey number on East coast of NA
- Data used by Rachel Carson in "Silent Spring"
27
What happened to the Association of Audubon Societies?
Renamed to the National Audubon Society
Distanced itself from predator control
Began conserving all bird species
T. Gilber Pearson was a president
28
Who was Aldo Leopold?
Founder of the science of Wildlife Management
- First professor of the field
Highly influential in defining modern environmental ethics
Changed public view through a book, "A Sand County Almanac" in 1949
- Observations & essays about the nature landscapes on his property that he had restored
1943: Aldo Leopold encouraged Wisconsin to create an "anterless" deer season
- So females & young bucks could be targeted to decrease exploding deer populations
- Because of Bambi, the public was outraged
29
What was the Bambi Effect?
In film, predators & prey live in uptopia
- Only fear humans
Before, hunting deer was normal
- Shown every few years from 1940-1980, causing the next generation to vilify hunting deer
Public created a strong pressure against hunting deer, called the "bambi effect"
30
What is an example of the Bambi Effect?
```
MIchel-Chartrand Park in Longueuil, QC
Can support 10-15 deer
- Currenlty has 70
Causes:
- Devaste ecology of two local parks
- Multiple car accidents
- Residents feed deer so deer aren't afraid of humans
- Not enough food for deer
Hunting not allowed
Public backlash from proposed cull
```
31
Who was Sir Julian Huxley?
First director-general of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) (1946)
Founder of IUCN (international union for the conservaiton of nature) (1948)
- Created IUCN redlist (first in 1964) (originally called the red data book)
Co-founder of WWF (1961)
- Created to safe rarest species internationally
Before 1940s, nothing done to help endangered species; then Huxley came:
- Researchers sent around the globe to interview locals (what species were disappearing)
- Created the organizations
32
What was the purpose of the WWF?
Would run conservaiton programs implemented by organization on the ground
Initial targets:
- Species not in Europe or NA
- African countries just getting their independence back
African countries:
- WWF wanted to create conservation regions in their border
- Reluctant because: outsiders managing resources, taking resource use/decision out of their hands; were the species being protected for Africans or the white man?
- Fears were right: in 2019, WWF removed indigenous groups from land for "parks"
33
What was "Silent Spring"?
Published in 1962 by Rachel Carson
Documented effects of DDT on bird populations
- Was first thought to be non-toxic to vertebrates
Rosalie Edge noticed declines in bird numbers & Rachel Carson figured out why
- DDT interfered with calcium metabolism, causing eggshells to be too thin to incubate (females would crush them)
- Caused massive declines in several raptors (bald eagles almost went extinct)
*First time people realized herbicides & pesticides could be harmful to wildlife
* People saw a mother sitting on a nest of broken eggs = powerful image (raptors were valued by the public in the 60s)
Book became spearhead for growing environmentalism movement
34
What were the benefits of DDT when it was first used?
Cheap
Long lasting
4x more effective at killing mosquitoes than other pesticides
- First pesticide that could kill multiple insect species
- Dr. Paul Muller was important in discovering the insect-killing properties
35
What studies were done on DDT?
```
Toxicity studies
- Only acute toxicity (no chronic/long term)
- Had half-life of 6.3 years in people
- Were flawed (small sample size...)
No persistence studies done
- Broke down rapidly in sunlight
- Had half-life of 15 years in soil
```
36
What is bioaccumulation?
Toxin levels buiding in an individual during its lifetime
37
What is biomagnification?
Toxin levels concentrating in higher trophich levels compared to lower ones (build in ecosystem)
38
What did Silent Springs do against DDT?
1973: DDT was banned except for control of insect-borne diseases in USA
1983: DDT was banned in Canada completely
1997: DDT was banned except against Malaria programs in Mexico
39
What is environmentalism?
Protection & improving the health of the environment
Difference to conservation (same outcome, different goals):
- Conservation: conservation of animal & plant life
- Environmentalism: role & preservation of entire ecosystems
The two concepts are stilled linked tho
40
What was passed due to environmentalism?
```
Environmental Protection Agency (1970)
Endangered Species Act (1973): US
Species at Risk Act (2002): CA
Converntion of BIological Diversity (1993)
- Multilateral treaty
Organizations:
- WWF (1961)
- Greenpeace (1971): Vancouver
```
41
What were some targeted media campaigns to inc. public opinion?
WWF against extinction
6-pack rings on animal pictures
Many more
42
What is Maximum sustained yield?
The largest yield that can be taken from a species' stock over an indefinite period without decreasing the growth rate of the population
Found in 1955
43
What were the fields that overlap with conservation to make important discoveries?
1955: Maximum sustained yield
1958: Invasive species
1960: Top-down trophic cascade
1964: Hamilton's Rule; Co-evolution
1969: Metapopulation; keystone species
1972: Gap-model forest growth
1978: population-viability analysis
1980: Biodiversity
1988: Hotspots
1984: Umbrella species
1995: Wildlife corridor
44
What is top-down trophic cascade?
A model that postulates that predation regulates an ecological community
Predation controls community organization because predators limit herbivores, herbivores limit plants, and plants limit nutrients
45
What is Hamilton's rule?
Animals are more likely to help each other if they are related
- In social animals only
Relatedness is measured on a scale from 0-1
- Full siblings & parents-children: .5
- Grandparents-grandchildren: .25
- Cousins: .125
46
What is altruism in nature?
When the benefits (B) of the act, multiplied by the relatedness (r), exceeds the cost to the self (C)
rB>C
47
What are meta-populations?
All the individual isoalted populations of an area still capable of interbreeding, but otherwise are reproductively isolated
48
What are keystone species?
A species that has a disproportionately large impact on the ecosystem
49
What is the Gap-model forest growth?
Gaps in teh forest canopy caused by the death of mature trees open up new space for trees to grow
50
What is population-viablitiy analysis?
Utilizing modelling ot determine the likelihood that a species will go extinct
51
What are biodiversity hotspots?
Species biodiversity is not distributed equally on the planet, some regions have much higher biodiversity
52
What are umbrella species?
A charismatic species which the public will want to protect
| Protecting this species habitat also indirectly protects the habitat of other species
53
What is a wildlife corridor?
Patches of natural habitat that facilitate the movement of wildlife between isolated large conserves areas
54
What is the difference between non-native species & invasive species?
Invasive speces cause negative impact on the ecosystem
| Non-native species says nothing about their impact
55
What is the conservaiotn-far approach?
When a foreign conservation group interfers in other countries for the purpose of conservation
- Usually smaller, less economically capable countries
- WWF does this a lot
The goals of the international organization are placed above the needs of the local community
56
What are Indigenous & local involvement in colonialism conservation?
Both government & NPOs are reachign out & working with indigenous & local communities for conservation
- These people previously ignored or persecuted
57
What is evidence-based conservation?
Conservation based on primary studies with controlled experimental design
First proposed in 2000
Before: "best guesses" & individual experience were used instead
58
What is new forestry?
View of foresty as a tool to both produce timber & maintain functional ecosystems with high biodiversity
Replacing utilitarianism approach to forestry
- Monoculture plantations
- Culling mature trees
- * Some European countries still use utilitarian forestry
59
What is the dark-sky preserve?
Adapted from astronomy to help nocturnal species
- Reduce or eliminate light pollution at night
Largest one is in CA; Wood Buffalo National Park
60
DDT can do what through the food chain?
Bioaccumulate
| Biomagnify
61
What are the new frameworks of conservation?
Evidence-based conservation
New forestry
Dark sky preserves
62
How was the idea of land acquisition formed?
Conservation & preservationist movements
Teddy Roosevelt saw wanted waste of natural resources (needed regulation)
- When he became president, passed the "Square Deal"
63
Who was Teddy Roosevelt to conservationists?
Leaders of the conservationist movement in American politics
Avid hunter/outdoorsman
Loved animals
- Refused to shoot a bear his friends had tied down for him (said it was unsportsmanlike
- People were enamored by his "honorable act"
Misused his executive power to pass conservation legislation without approval
- Issued 1,081 orders
64
What was the "Square Deal"?
Had four pillars
| - One was the conservation of natural spaces
65
What did Roosevelt do as president?
```
Passed 1,081 executive orders
Established US Forest Service
Created 150 National Forests
18 National Monuments
5 National Parks
51 Bird Reserves
4 Game Reserves
Created Antiquities Act
* Protected 130mill acres of land
```
66
What was the Antiquities Act?
Act gave the president the right to create national monuments for conservation
Has been used 100 times since its passing
67
When did Canada Amend the legislation governing National Parks and why?
1988
| To focus on ecological integrity
68
What was the first Canadian National Park?
1883: Hot Springs discovered in Sulphur Mountains of Alberta
- Government bought it and called it public lands
Sir John A. Macdonald (prime minister) set aside 26km^2 of land
- This was used as a public bath (Called the Cave and Basin Hot Spring)
- Today, closed for public use
Land around the hot springs was considered unusually natural beauty
- 1887: became Banff National Park (from the Rocky Mountain Parks Act)
- Became a big tourist destination & building was done
69
What happened to Banff National Park after building?
Polluted surrounding wetlands
Led to extinction of the Banff Longnose Dace
- Was found only in the wetlands fed by two hot springs in the Sulfur Mountains
- Not mentioned today
70
What was the main problem with National Parks in Canada?
"Wilderness untouched by man"
- Indigenous communities lived there
They didn't want human activities, so outlawed traditional hunting, gathering, & communities (indigenous livelihoods basically)
Creating the Banff, Stanely Park, Algonquin, & Riding Mountain National Park came with the forced removal of native people
- *At Riding Mountain National Park, empty homes were set on fire so people couldn't return
* Largely unacknowledged by our National Parks in NA
These exclusionary policies didn't change until after the 1970s
71
How much land is currently protected in Canada as a National Park (government owned)?
3% (Most of Canada is undeveloped, so why isn't it protected?)
USA = 12%
Japan = 30%
72
What are the main NPOs in Canada to protect land?
Nature Conservancy
| Ducks Unlimited
73
What has Nature Conservancy (NPO) done for land protection?
Since 1962
Buy private land and protect it from conservation
Today: has protected 140,000km^2 over 1,000 properties
- About 1/2 of what the government has protected in 150 years
- Includes Darkwoods Conservation Area
Funds raised through donations only
Work with local indigenous people, scientists, & volunteers
- To maintain ecological value/restore damaged natural sites
74
What is Darkwoods Conservation Area?
In BC
Largest single private conservation project in Canadian history
55,000 ha
75
What has Ducks Unlimited Canada (NPO) done for land protection?
Created 1937
Majority of members were hunters responsible for causing rapid decline of waterfowl
- 90% of current members are hunters
Focus on wetland habitat for waterfowl specifically
- Have conserved over 200mill acres across CA & USA
- Covers migratory routes of species internationally
Preserves & manages habitat owned by a range of owner types (doesn't purchase land themselves): governments, private homeowners, other NPOs
* People protect what they value
76
When did land acquisition begin?
Late 19th century
Before ecology & conservation biology in mid-late 20th century
* So not much science behind it
77
Why was the Bengal Tiger Conserved?
Panthera tigris tigris (subspecies in India)
In late 1800s, pop was 58,000
By 1970s, pop was 2,000
- Was then considered India's national animal: banned hunting, set up conservation plan called Project Tiger
Now, population is between 2,500-3,000 (success)
78
How was the Bengal Tiger Conserved?
```
50 reserves set up under Project Tiger
- 85% of tigers today ar in reserves
- Now reaching carrying capacity
Most reserves below 1,500km^2
- Males need 60-150km^2
- Females need 20-60km^2
```
79
What is the SLOSS debate?
Ongoing since the 1970s
The size vs number of reserves in conservation
- Single large or several small (SLOSS)
- Important scientific debate (most don't have acronyms)
80
What are the pros & cons of large reserves?
```
Pro:
- Minimize edge effect
Cons:
- Concentrates most individuals in one place so more vulnerable to chance events
- Not good for migratory species
- Less biodiversity
```
81
What are the pros & cons of smaller reserves?
Pros:
- Potentially preserve a greater diversity of ecosystems
- Better for migratory species (smaller reserves connected by wildlife corridors
- Less likely for one chance event to destroy species
Cons:
- More edge effect
- Lower carrying capacity
82
What is the edge effect?
Habitat quality tends ot be lower on the edge of a continuous habitat than the center
- Greater frequency of disturbances, fewer resources...
83
What is an example of a chance event harming a large reserve?
Canine distemper virus spread form dogs to wild carnivores
Killed 28 of the remaining 600 Asiatic lions in Gir Naitonal Park in India
- The largest remaining population of this species in the world
84
What is the carrying capacity?
The number of an individual species that a habitat can support based on both the available resources in that habitat and the biological needs of the species
85
What happened to the Bengal tiger when carrying capacity was neared?
Move adolescents into new areas to maintain genetic diversity
- Wildlife corridors are becoming increasingly fragmented
- Shipping them
86
What is translocation?
The process of moving animals & plants between sites for the purposes of conservation
Risk of mortality depends on:
- How long translocation lasts
- Biology of species (prone to stress?)
- Restraint methods needed (sedatives needed?)
- Capture method used (chased, trapped?)
87
What is the problem of translocation in social species?
Ex. Elephants
Very social, learn behavior from adults
If the young are removed, they don't learn everything and gain temper issues
- Don't learn what enemies to distinguish
88
What are the alternatives to translocation?
Reserves where animal doesn't leave park
| Ex. Ranthambore tiger reserve supports 60 tigers, half descended from one female
89
What were the pros & cons of land acquisition in conserving the Bengal tiger?
Pros:
- Umbrella species
- Conserve in original habitat
- Cheaper than other forms of conservation (still need more to fully protect remaining tigers)
Cons:
- Conserved areas are a subset of the natural niche of the species (is the size big enough to preserve genetic health & avoid interbreeding?)
- Concentrate high-value species (easier target for poachers, more vulnerable to unpredictable external factors)
- Thousands of families displaced to find land
- 225 people killed by tigers in 5 years
90
What is a common?
Land owned by one or multiple people in which one or multiple people have rights to access OR
An area which no one has ownership, but multiple people can access for use
*(think community garden)
Originated in medieval Europe: lord would allow peasants to graze animals on his "common land"
91
What is the "Tragedy of the Commons"?
Garrety Hardin article (1968)
Individuals are inherently self-interested; if given free-access to a pool of resources with no limits, they will use resources to exhaustion instead of sharing
Ultimately can't share common resources
Had a large impact on biologists (even though it was just an opinion of a biased person)
- In 1960s, resources were disappearing & seemed to solidify the article
92
When did conservation of marine habitats begin?
Came late (only began in 1960s)
People conserve what they are familiar with (most didn't pay attention to the ocean)
Began b/c TV & diving technology allowed common people to see the ocean & marine life
93
What was Whale oil?
Refined from boiling the blubber of whales down to a liquid
Burned & lubricated better than any other oil known at the time
- Lubricated machinery of the industrial revolution
- Most important oil for lamps (replaced by kerosene oil)
- Used as oil hydrogenated to make margarine
Demand skyrockets from 18th-19th century
- Drove multiple species to brink of extinction
94
What happened to whales in the 1900s?
Used as food & whale oil
Hunting became unsustainable
1930s: League of Nations called for international regulations on wahling
- Signed, but not enforced
By 1960s, many were almost extinct
Jacques-Yves Cousteau & Songs of the Humpback Whale made people notice whales, making people interested in whales
- UN Conference on Human Environment voted for a 10 year moratorium on whaling (not ratified until 1982 when Internation Whaling Commision (IWC) was signed):
- US passed Marine Mammal Protection Act
- Greenpeace formed & launched anti-whaling campaign ("Save the Whales")
95
Who was Jacques-Yves Cousteau?
Was star of TV show, "The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau" (1966-1976)
Made people think about marine life & appreciate it
96
What was the importance of the "Songs of the Humpback Whale"?
1970
First vocalizations recorded of the humpback whale
Made people enamored of whales
97
What was the "Save the Whales" campaign?
```
From Greenpeace (Vancouver)
Directly confronted whaling ships not resecting UN moratorium
* Sea Shepherds splintered from Greenpeace in 1977 to take more radical action against whaling
```
98
What was the importance of the moratorium against whaling?
Only allowed for indigenous harvest & scientific research
Allowed many species to recover
Most societies stopped whale oil & meat
Exceptions
- Iceland & Norway: consumed locally by population (iceland stopped in 2019 due to pandemic restrictions)
- Japan: Meat consumed by public; demand decreasing due to health concerns (now a specialty item); stockpile store is growing due to decline; Buddhists against whaling; being anti-whaling is considered by some as being "anti-Japanese"
99
What are the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)?
The 200 nautical miles from a sovereign states coastline that that state has the rights to
Can impose protections & laws on activities which impact marine ecosystems
Many set legal limitations on the activities & harvesting which take place within their EEZ, called Marine Protected Area (MPA)
100
What is a Marine Protected Area (MPA)?
Set legal limitations on the activities & harvesting which takes places within a countries EEZ
Largest MPA = Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument
Highly variable in what is allowed or restricted based on the country
Difference to land:
- Not usually completed excluded of human activities, instead, manage existing activities
Only 6% of total marine environment
101
What are the types of MPAs?
```
Multiple use
No-take
No impact
No access
Seasonal
Rotating
```
102
What are multiple use MPAs?
Allows for almsot unrestricted use
| Most common type
103
What are No-take MPAs?
Allows for human use only, but no extraction of wildlife
- MPA of Paphanaumokuakea marine national monument
Rare (only .01% of global oceans)
104
What are no impact/no-use MPAs?
Allows for human use, but must have no measurable impact on the local ecosystem
Rare (usually only for research)
- Usually temporary
105
What are no access MPAs?
```
No unauthorized access at all
Extremely rare (mostly for research)
```
106
What are seasonal MPAs?
MPAs only in effect during a specific time of year
| Usually during an important lifecycle events in local wildlife (ex. spawning)
107
What are rotating MPAs?
MPA that moves between locations in order to achieve conservation goals
Usually during short-term conservation or environmental crises (think oil spills)
108
What is the Ocean Tracking Network?
Canadian initiative
| Acoustic tags on individuals send out acoustic signals (sonar)
109
What is wrong with MPAs?
Focused on species (but species move)
- Would be more effective if directed toward threats (ex. reduce fishing pressure)
"Paper parks": make us feel better but don't help
Only about 10% are effective
110
Who was Elinor Ostrom?
Won Nobel Economics prize for demonstrating that the "tragedy of the commons" is wrong
- Many common globally have been successfully managed without collapse
111
What was dolphin-free tuna?
1950s fishermen caught dolphins accidenlty in tuna nets
Flipper popularized dolphins in the public
1988: footage of dolphins dying in purse nets
"Flipper Seal fo Approval" label was created for dolphin-free tuna
- First international label for an environmentally friendly product
- After 2 years, all tuna companies were pressured into accepting them
- Reduced bycatch from 700,000 to 90,000 (but populations haven't recovered)
112
What are the lifeboat ethics?
Concept proposed by Hardin ("tragedy of the commons" guy) as an allegory for immigration & wealth imbalance in the world
- Only so much room in the lifeboat (rich first)
113
What are menageries?
Animal captivity in anceint times
Longevity & happiness weren't considered
- Animals were often made to fight each other or were fed to others for entertainment
Care requirements weren't known
114
What was the purpose of animals in captivity in early times?
To provide amusement or happiness ot the people
| To be a status symbol to the owner of the animalW
115
What was the difference between keeping wild vs domestic animals?
Domestic animals:
- Longevity was desirable
- Care conditions were known
- Breeding was profitable & desirable (control of breeding to control genetics; even before genes were understood)
116
What were the first zoos?
1752: Austria (still open)
- First public zoo
1847: London Zoo
- First scientifically founded zoo
1874: Philadelphia Zoo
- First public zoo in New World
- Didn't have a full time vet until 1950s
* opened so public could experience wildlife
Animals collected by big game hunters
- Little to no medical care & no breeding
- Similar to menageries
Very rare: expensive
117
What were nature dioramas?
More common than zoos (less expensive)
In museums
- How most westerners experienced wild animals
Highly detailed taxidermized animals with landscapes close to original habitat
1909-1910: Smithsonian-Roosevelt exhibition
- Killed 11,400 animals (1,00 large mammals)
- 10,000 plant species
* Most being dismantled in the 21st century (considered archaic)
118
When was captivity for conservation considered?
```
Began 1800s
Became more important after 1960s
Species:
- Hawaiian Goose (Nene)
- Plains Bison
```
119
What happened to the first captively bred conserved species?
Plains Bison & Hawaiian goose
Successful
These were chosen because similar requirements for domestic animals were known
Bison:
- Breed & maintain themselves behind protective fences in their natural habitats
Hawaiian goose:
- similar to care of domesticated goose
- Goslings reared in captivity & re-released successfully
120
What is captive breeding?
The maintating & breeding of species in captivity
Rare wild species being maintaining through human intervention outside of their normal habitat
- Can also be to relieve hunting pressure eon remaining wild populations
- Can also be used to relieve collection of individuals for pet trade
Generallly to release them back into the wild over time
Last resort (extinction is next option)
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What happened to the first captive breeding with species not similar to domestic animals?
Began in 1960-70s
Difficult because food, breeding, needs are unknown
Saving the whooping crane
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Why was/is captive breeding controversial?
Controversal:
- Resorting to captive breeding devalues in situ conservation
- Taking animals out of the wild means they are no better than domestic animals
- It will not be possible to reintroduce them back into the wild
- Creates an extreme genetic bottleneck (modern argument)
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What were the attempts to breed the whooping crane in captivity?
Injured birds taken in
First successful pair in captivity produced 50 eggs
- Only 4/50 chicks survived to adulthood
- 0/4 bred naturally
Took in closely related sandhill crane (to learn how to raise their chicks because they were not as rare)
- Found raising whooping cranes was more difficult
Found that two eggs were laid, but only one survived (second egg was taken into captivity)
- No dec in fitness
- Used to establish a breeding colony in captivity
1st step (next need to reintroduce the species into the wild)
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What is the whooping crane?
```
Migratory species in NA
Tallest bird species in NA (1.6m)
Declined from 1500 in 1800s to 22 in 1940
- Current population is 800
Captive breeding began in 1940s
```
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What were the attempts to reintroduce the whooping crane?
Began in 1976
1. Whooping crane eggs were placed in wild sandhill crane nests
- Wanted the sandhill crane to raise them & teach them to migrate
- 289 eggs, 85 survived & learned to migrate
- All 85 had imprinted on the sandhill cranes & wouldn't mate with other whooping cranes (actually created a hybrid)
2. Released 289 captive-bred birds
- Created a non-migratory population
- Only 1 chick was produced
- Today, only 9 birds remain
3. Trained population to migrate using an ultralight aircraft
- Only 2 chicks hatched to same parents (one survived to migrate with her parents)
- Population rose to 105, but dropped to 86 as of 2020
4. Reintroduce to Louisiana
- Pair of reintroduced cranes reared a chick (2016)
- Five chicks reared (2018)
- As of 2020, 76 individuals (mostly released captive-bred individuals)
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What became of the whooping crane from captive breeding?
800 birds in wild
- Only self-sustaining pop is original population (500 birds)
- Reintroduced species need additions from captive breeding
160 birds in captivity (not self-sustaining)
- All descend from a genetic base of 6-8 birds
- 66% of genetic diversity has been lost
One of the longest captive breeding programs in the world
Considered a success
- When in situ conservation really saved them (protect habitats, migratory pathway, reduce hunting...)
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What is the difference between captive-bred & wild whooping cranes?
Captive-bred:
- Breed later in life (7-10 years old vs 3-4 years old)
- Frequently abandon or neglect nests/chicks
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What to do if captive breeding efforts don't work?
Focus on in situ conservation
Even if population is small & vulnerable
*There are new evidence-based approaches to determine if captive breeding is feasible for a species before its done
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What is an example of captive breeding not working?
Great Indian bustard
| Evidence-based modelling determined captivity would cause high mortality
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What are examples of captive breeding for "farming"?
Tiger parts for traditional medicine & skins
- 8,000 tigers (2x more than wild population)
Bears gall bladders for bile
- 12,000 bears (including indangered species)
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What is legal ivory?
Trade was banned in 1989
- African nations stockpiled ivory from individuals that died of natural causes
China & Japan allowed to buy from this stockpile
- Wanted to saturate market with legal ivory to crash illegal ivory prices
- Ended up increasing demand for ivory, increasing poaching of elephants
Other option:
- Burn ivory (will increase price/demand tho)
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What is bad about the pet trade?
Has led to extinction or extirpation of some species
Mainly:
- Birds, amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, cacti, orchids
Instead, breed the species in captivity to relieve pressure
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What are the pros/cons of captive breeding for pet trade?
Pros:
- Genotye known to survive in captivity
- More used to human contact
- Generally free of parasites & diseases common in WT
- Cheaper & more readily available
Cons:
- Take from a small population, inbreeding issues
- Ex. All domesticated hamsters come from a single female
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What is Josh's Frogs?
* Most pet trade captive breeding are not good (think puppy mill)
Josh's Frogs (USA) are good
- Sell only captive-bred animals (started with dart frogs, now expanded)
- Partnere with local conservation groups in countries where they obtain their breeding populations
- Protions of sales go towards funding professionally managed captive breeding programs & in situ conservation
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What are the steps to create a modern captive breeding program?
1. Able to maintain teh species safely & healthily
2. Able to induce breeding & raise healthy offspring
3. Maintain high genetic diversity
- Targets are 90% over 100 years (lost 66% of genetic diversity of the whooping crane)
4. Have a plan for reintroduction
- Biological & behavioral needs
- Rid habitat of factors that caused initial decline
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What is a con of keeping all individuals in one or a few facilities?
Inc vulnerability to chance events
- Crane feed was contaminated with mycotoxins, causing 240 sick & 13 (5%) dead
- Illness killed all but one (George the snail) snail individuals in a species to die
- Inadequate diet caused thin eggshells in Ynagtze softshell turtles (killed all viable eggs)
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What causes breeding behavior of many species?
Environmental factors or learned behavior from parents
Ex. Amphibians need specific conditions (water quality, daylenght, humidity, temperature)
- Some amphibian species: female needs to find a male to induce release of her eggs during breeding season or she dies
Ex. Giant pandas lose drive to mate (need to watch panda porn)
Even in species where breeding is instinctual, animals born in captivity have reluctance to mate (unclear why)
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What to do if natural breeding in captivity doesn't work?
Artificial breeding:
- Artificial insemination
- In vitro fertilization
- Gynogenesis
- Interspecific pregnancy
- Cloning
- Interspecific parenting
- Double clutch
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What is artificial insemination?
Physical insertion of sperm into the reproductive tract of a female without the aid of actual mating
Common in domesticated animals (from 1700s)
- 70-80% of livestock
Difficult with wild animals:
- Animals not used to direct human contact
- Techniques for domestic animals don't easily apply to WT
- Females must be in season
- Male & females must be physically caught or sedated (stressful)
- Ex. Last female Yangtze giant softshell turtle in captivity was recently killed due to failed artificial insemination
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What is electroejaculation?
Probe stimulates ejucaultion of male through use of electric current on sedated animals to extract sperm for artificial insemination
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What is in vitro fertilization?
Fertilization of an egg cell in the lab then the fertilized embryo is reimplanted in the female (or different female)
Costly
Benefits:
- Used to propagate individuals who may not be able to normally conceive
- Can breed individuals without having to move the physical animal
- Embryos & eggs can be stored
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What is cryopreservation?
Long term (decades+) tissue storage in extreme cold
Used to store fertilized embryos & excess egg cells
Ex. Toads with cryogenically preserved sperm were 10-15% smaller
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What is gynogenesis?
Parthenogenesis induced in teh female by teh presence of sperm (no actual fertilization takes place)
Ex. Sturddlefish was a hybrid from paddlefish sperm & sturgeon eggs (meant to induce parthenogenesis in sturgeon, whoops)
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What is cloning?
The creation of a new individual from the complete genome of an existing individual
Involves surrogate or interspecific pregnancy
Ex. dolly the sheep
Ex. Black footed ferret cloned had 3x as much genetic diversity as any ferrets form the captive breeding program
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What is interspecific pregnancy?
The fertilized egg of one species being carried to term in the womb of a different but closely related species
Ex. Pyrenean ibex DNA inserted into egg cell of a domestic goat
- Didn't survive
Technology not there yet, but close
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What is interspecific parenting?
When one species raises the offspring of an unrelated species
- Preferred to human rearing as young animals can imprint on human keepers (humans mostly only raise primates)
- Done with dogs & cats a lot
Only occurs in species with some natural level of parental care & in social species
Done if:
- Natural mother rejects offspring (done usually if offspring is weak)
- Natural mother killed or separated from offspring
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What is an example of human interspecific parenting?
Nairobi orphanage (1977)
Caretakers adopted an elephant calf
Done 24/7 for 12 years until she could be returned
- WIthout constant care, the elephant would die (very social animals)
Successful (265 elephants re-released to date)
- 47 calves born in the wild to former orphan parents
- Human raised elephants are no more likely to approach people (plastic nature)
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What is double-clutch?
Used exclusively in birds
Some species will lay a second set of eggs if the first are removed soon after the female lays them
Ex. Successful in the California condor
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What is a studbook?
A listing of all the parentage of every individual in the breeding program
Determines how closely related two individuals are before breeding
Helps ensure greatest genetic diversity is preserved in each mating & new offspring
Preserving high genetic diversity & avoiding inbreeding depends on:
- Genetic diversity of founder captive population
- Which individuals can survive in captivity
- How well the studbook is implemented
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What is the adaptation to captivity argument?
Theoretical argument aht individuals kept in captivity experience selection pressure to make them more adapted to captive conditions
- This makes them less fit to survive in the wild
Difficult to prove genetically
However, captive bred individuals usually have lower fitness than WT
- Even in species with no parental care d
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How can genetic diversity be lost due to captivity?
Individuals that fail to thrive in captivty or die early
- We lose those phenotypes
Need to pick & chose species
- Are all phenotypes beneficial? How do we decide which aren't? Should we pick & chose?
Ex. Guillemot is a diving bird that hunts at different depths & tropic levels depending on the individual (how they forage)
- 73% of population showed significant dietary specialization at the individual level so which do we chose to preserve
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What happened to the black robin?
Went htrough exterme bottleneck (only 5 individuals & one female) Researcher pushed an egg on the rim of the nest into the center
- "Rim egg" trait was genetic
- Was a small population, so soon 50% of females did this, resulting in high mortality
- After no more human intervention, only 9% of females did this by 2011
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What are the main threats to reintroduction of captive speies?
Adaptation to captivity
Imprinting on humans or other animals
Environmental factors that caused decline still out there (California condor survived in wild after DDT &lead bullets were prohibited & habitat was restored)
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How are species "rewilded"?
Each captive breeding program needs to establish own framework
Usually carnivores have low survival rates (25%) when released due to:
- Human interactions
- Starvation
- Unsuccessul predator/competitor avoidance
- Disease
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Who was Charles Elton?
Studied invasive species
Wrote: "The Ecology of Invasion by Animals & Plants" in 1958
Invasive species didn't become popular unit the 1990s tho
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What was important about the European Rabbit?
Was not native to the UK (brought from Normandy)
Was considered a pest until recently
- Now important ecosystem engineers with their burrowing habits
Was originally culled with introduced diseases
- Now trying to recover the species by creating brush piles for habitat
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What is an invasive species?
An introduced species which is having a negative impact on the novel environment it is in
Relative: has to do with our perceived impact of hte species on its novel habitat
* must be introduced
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What is an introduced (or non-native) species?
A species which has been introduced to a habitat that it has not historically been found in
*Says nothing on the species impact
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What are the major impacts of invasiv species?
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Direct decline native species through predation or competition
Disease
Genetic pollution
Changes in the ecosystem
- Invasive meltdown
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What is the impact of predation or direct competition from invasive species?
About 1/3 of species are extinct due to introduced species
| Invasive mammals have greatest impact on extinctions
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What is the impact of diseases from invasive species?
Usually, arms race between disease & host
| Novel mutation effect virulence of hte disease OR naive host population has no evolutionary history with the disease
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What is an example of a invasive disease?
Chytridiomycosis
Fungi infects skin of amphibians, leading ot heart attacks, suffocation
Cause declines in 501 species (over 90% in 124 species)
Cause extinction in 90 species
Origin: endemic disease of African clawed frog (asymptomatic)
- Exported to be used in the Xenopus pregnancy test
- This species became a standard lab animal (spread by researchers studying amphibians)
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What was important about the Xenopus pregnancy test?
Caused invasive disease, Chytridiomycosis
Similar hormes are involved in ovulation in frogs & humans
- Inject urine of a woman into the frog
- If the women was pregnant, the hormones would induce the frog to produce eggs
Caused thousands of frogs to be imported
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What is genetic pollution?
A native species that hybridizes with an introduces species
-Results in increase of hybrids & decline in genetically distinct native individuals
Ex. Female Hawaiian ducks prefer male Mallard ducks (both Anas genus)
- Causes major conservation issue with Anas species worldwide
Ex. black Eastern Grey Wolves derived from mutation from hybridization of wolfs with domestic dogs
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What is an invasion meltdown?
Where an invasive species negatively impacts multiple native species both directly & indirectly by modifying the abiotic environment
- Indirect effect: caused by declines in native species due to invasive species
- Direct effect: caused by invasive species itself
Ex. earthworms in NA convert forests to grasslands
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How can invasive species be controlled?
```
Currently:
- Culling
- Mega eradication
Future:
- Predator Free 2050
- Gene drive
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What is culling?
The selective killing of a large number of wild animals as a means of population management
Differnce in time:
- 1800s-early 1900s: predatory "pests" were culled
- Modern culling: species threatening resources (native or invasive) OR invasive species impacting native species
Difficult to implement
Viewed negatively by public
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What is an example of culling?
Feral cat population in Australia
2.8 mill animals in 99.9% of wild spaces
- kill 1.4 bill native species (34 went extinct, 74 on brink of extinction)
How to reduce the problem:
- Culling (mega eradication)
- Fencing off particularly valuable ecological areas
- Registration required for pet cats (PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT)
- Night curfew for pet cats (PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT)
- Keeping cats indoors (PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT)
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What is mega eradication?
The elimination of an entire species or multiple invasive species from the landscape
Has been implemented on several islands
- Focused on "less cuddly" species
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What is an example of mega eradication?
Rats & mice from Lord Howe Island (from 2019-2021): Successful
Phases:
- Public information & approval phase (NEEDED)
- Mass baiting of invasive species with poison (form that won't harm native species
- Capture & monitoring of any native species which. may be effected by dead animals (poisoned pests kill scavengers)
- Tracking of rodent population using specialized dogs
- Re-release of native species
- Long term biodiversity & rodent monitoring
Conclusion:
- 2019: no rodents found
- 2021: 96 rats found (unknown if missed or re-introduced)
- Butterflies & other species bloomed
- Want to reintroduce Lord Howe tree lobster
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What is Predator Free 2050?
Ambitious plan by New Zealand to eliminate all non-native predators by 2050
New Zealand is severely impacted by invasive species
- 51 endemic birds have gone extinct
- Lose $3.3bill/year to invasive species ($70mill to prevention)
Want to control invasive species with gene drive technology
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What is gene drive technology?
CRISPR/Cas9 in one parent that will modify teh genes of the other parent in the developing embryo
- Guarantees that the wanted trait will be inherited
Can insert a harmful allele that will be guaranteed to be inherited by the whole population over generations
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What is the niche concept?
The physical location a species occupies in its environment is dependent on the abiotic factors in the habitat + potential biotic interactions with other species
Niches are defined by the historical range, not necessarily where it could survive
Effect current conservation frameworks significantly
Ex. Golden Pthos plant endemic to a small island but has since spread beyond what its suggested niche range should be
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How does climate change effect niches?
Niches of all species are going to change significantly over the next 80 years due to:
- Global changes in atmospheric CO2
- Increase in extreme weather events
- Complete change in average seasonal conditions
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What is CO2 fertilization?
Increase atmosphereic CO2 = increased growth of plants
B/c they utilize CO2 for photosynthesis
Causes the junk food effect
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What is the junk food effect?
Higher rates of photosynthesis = greater sugar production
Greater sugar production = plants producing less of other compounds
Nutrient levels of plants have been falling since 1950s
Main decline:
- Protein
- Calcium
- Potassium
- Riboflavin
- Ascorbic acid
Ex. Protein content in goldenrod pollen has declined by 33%
- The protein is necessary for bees to overwinter (this may be a factor for why bee colonies decline)
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What is the problem with weather due to climate change?
Frequency of extreme weather events is increasing
- Doesn't allow populations enough time to recover between events
- Populations are already low from other factors
* Especially a problem if remaining populations are concentrated in an area (from captive breeding or large reserves)
- Ex. Imperial Amazon bird has risen in population not 25--350 from conservation efforts; Hurrican Maria killed all but below 50 individuals
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What ideas have been proposed to help populations survive extreme weather events in situ?
Physical manipulation of the environment
- Provide watering holes during droughts
- Replace nesting sites lost with artificial trees
- Controlled burning
Genetic modification of the species
- Adapt more rapidly with or without genetic engineering
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What is an example of causing genetic modification of species to help against extreme weather events?
Corals are vulnerable to warming
- Heat stress causes coral to reject its symbiotic algal partner, leading to death of the coral
Scientists breeding coral that can survive climate change
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What will happen to niches because of climate change?
Average seasonal conditions will drastically change in the next 80 years, changing niches
Assisted migration can help
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What is assisted migration?
Help populations survive by moving niches
| Facilitating the migration of a species to a novel range
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What are limitations of assisted migration?
Sky islands: species on mountains often adapted to high altitudes can't leave the mountain environment
Species adapted to northern latitudes will have no where to go
Islands will be lost to rising seawater
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What are cons of assisted migration?
Moved populatiosn become invasive species
Establishing a new species isn't simple, many potential biotic interactions to consider. that might not allow target species to survive
Plants: How well will the plant survive without the soil community which supports it
However, may not have a choice
- Montreal 2100 = summers equal to Venezuela summers today
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What are the main factors to consider with assisted migration?
```
Top-down factors:
- Predators
- Pollinators
- Herbivores/parasites
Bottom-up factors:
- Soil community
- Microbiome
- Plant community
- * Climate impacts biodiversity in soil communities, plants, & the food webs that depend on plants
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Study on community-level impacts of climate change on microbial diversity & resulting insect tolerance of plant species:
Three popualtions of Pinus edulis:
- Naturally moth-tolerant
- Naturally moth-susceptible
- Moths removed by pesticide in moth-susceptible
Studied relationship between plant-microbiome relationships and:
- Drought tolerance (greater in insect-tolerant population)
- Inset herbivory
- Interspecies plant competition
Conclusions:
- Multiple factors influence plant microbiome composition (environment, local plant species, genetics)
- Plant microbiome in turn can influence: drought tolerance, insect tolerance, overall growth, competitive ability
- External changes lead to plant with reduced microbial community
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What is the importance of plant migration?
Greater chance of success if animals were transplanted with supporting plant communities
Microbial species associated with increased tolerance conditions against climate change
- Can we help plant populations in situ with these species?
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What is pollen morphology?
Species-specific, can be used to identify species
Soil core: pollen morphology & concentration can be obtained in stratified layers
- Used to track historic plant migrations in ancient past
Faster than we expected
Theories for fast dispersal:
- Plant migration events occur after glaciation (no plants to occupy the area) so plants moved into open & empty landscapes OR some plants survived with little reproduction that facilitated fast dispersal once glaciers retreated OR
-Rare, long distance dispersal events contribute disproportionately to dispersal
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what is Reid's paradox of rapid plant migration?
Plants with poor seed dispersal mechanisms mirgrate faster in the geological record than should be possible
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What is an example of natural migration due to climate change?
Quino checkerspot butterfly
Former range shrunk to two locations through anthropocentric activities
Climate conditions became too hot & dry in these last two locations
- The plant they ate died
Recently, the species was found at higher altitudes, feeding on a new plant species
Very cool!
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How are conservation & politics intrinsically linked?
Majority of conservation frameworks involve government oversight & investment on some level
Strength & weakness in conservation
- When public is sufficiently invested & supportive, conservation is likely to occur
- It is rare a single political figure will spearhead conservation at their cost of their political career (exception: Roosevelt)
- If public becomes disinterested, easy to lose the gains that have been made
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What has happened since the Antiquities Act was passed?
Passed by Roosevelt
Most presidents have added new National Monuments
Trump: ordered review of Antiquities Act in 2017 (allowed reduction in size of National Monuments to use their resources)
- Reduced sizes of Bears Ears National Monument & Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument
- They have been restored by Biden
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What happens when international politics are involved?
Potentially competing visions for conservation
- Difficulties with transboundary conservation
Conservation can become a tool for international diplomacy
- Panda Diplomacy
- Subsidizing the rainforest
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What is transboundary conservation?
Conserving species which have international distributions
Ex. 2010 brought together 13 countries with extant tiger ranges committed to doubling numbers of wild tigers by 2022
- Didn't double, but rose significantly
Even in political organizations with high degree of agreement in international conservation laws (EU), issues still arise
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Mediterranean Migration:
Over 200 species (2mill individuals) of birds in the EU migrate through teh Mediterranean 2x/year
- 60 are threatened
Many are focus of expensive conservation efforts in the EU
Ex. Northern bald ibis (successfully reintroduced to Europe in 2009; migrate from Germany to Italy)
- Illegal hunters in Italy shot 15/37 birds in 1 season (including 1st female)
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Harm to the Mediterranean Migration:
11-36 mill birds/year are illegally poached
- 1/2 in EU countries that are supposed to have strict laws against bird poaching
Most killed for local delicacies
- Amelopuolia
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What is Amelopoulia?
Fried, boiled, ro pickled whole birds
In cyprus
Usually songbirds
Considered issue of national identity (like with whaling in Japan)
Demand has increased with international pressure to stop illegal poaching
- Inc. 270% in 3 years
197
What is limesticking?
Tradinional method of harvesting birds for food
| Use branches coated with sticky paste to trap migrating songbirds
198
What are modern methods to harvest birds illegally?
Due to advantages in technology
Mist nets
Audio lured
199
What are the issues of songbird poaching in the Mediterranean?
National identity
Historic cultural signiviance
Technology advancements resulting in dramatic increase in harvesting
200
What is Panda diplomacy?
The act of using rare naimals as bargaining tokens in international relations
Began in China with Pandas in 1950s
201
What was the origin of Panda Diplomacy?
Pandas were given as gifts to zoos of countries through to be favorable to the People's Republic of China
- 24 gifted between 1950-1983
In 1984: China modified so Pandas were loaned for $50k/month
In 1991: Modified so loaned for $1mill/year for 10 years tops
- Still stingely chooses who is approved for the loan
- Finland was granted a loan of two pandas after they endorsed "one-China-policy"
Any cubs produced are property of China
202
What is the political strategy of saving the rainforest?
How much are you willing to pay to save the Rainforest?
Presidnet Lula da Silva said Brazil can reduce deforestation by 80% IF countries can contribute to the Amazon Fund (raise $21bill)
- Norway, Germany, & UK pledged $5bill by 2020
President Bolsonaro has now tried to get more money from countries to curb illegal deforestation (after increasing deforestation himself)
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What happened to the Amazon rainforest?
1970s: Construction of the Trans-Amazonian Highway
- Most deforestation occurs with 4km of a roadway
1980s: continued dams, infrastructure, & mining
1988: Satellite imagery revealed 10% loss
1989: "Our Nature" program & IBAMA launched in Brazil
1980: Called "tropical Rainforest" instead of jungle
Deforestation remained until 2003: Marina Silva became minister of environment
- Slowed from 2004-2012 because of her
2015: International pressure for palm oil increased deforestation
2019: Presidnet Jair Bolsonaro took office (wanted to bring development to the Amazon)
204
What is IBAMA?
Brazilian Instritute of Environment & Renewable Natural resources
Federal environmental law-enforcement agency
205
Who was Marina Silva?
Minister of environment in Brazil
Established 600,000 miles of new reserves in rainforest
Improved monitoring & law enforcement
Created a blacklist of "name & shame" municipalities with highest rates of deforestation
206
Who is Jair Bolsonaro?
President of Brazil
Platform of bringing development to the Amazon
Has:
- Deregulated pesticide use
- Deregulated land use
- Refused international aid to fight Amazon fires
- Placed agriculture minister in charge of Amazon
- Tried to arrest former president Lula da Silva
- Has now tried to get more money from countries to curb illegal deforestation
207
What does plant life in the Amazon rainforest do?
Modifies global weather patterns
Flying river: system which brings moisture over large areas through wind currents & evaporation from trees
- To function, needs enough trees to keep the river flowing
- If 20-25% of Amazon is removed, flying river won't function
- Currently at 17% loss
Loss has serious implications:
- Loss of rainfall in Southern Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, & Uruguay
- Increase forest loss in the Amazon
- Cascading global effects (10-20% loss of rainfall in Southwestern US)
208
What are the cons of our current frameworks for conservation?
- Captive breeding is costly
- Land acquisition models are losing ecosystems to degradation
- Declining populations result in less genetic diversity
- Dec populations inc. cost for those species on the black market
- Climate change is going to irreversibly modify abiotic environments
- Common areas are not regulated by enforceable laws
209
Who was Christopher Stone?
Published article "Should Trees Have Standing?" in 1972
Argued that natural objects should have legal rights
- Any injury to it would be examined under the law
By giving legal personhood to natural objects, won't have to write specific laws for each protected area
210
Natural objects with legal personhood:
2017: Te Awa Tupua river in New Zealand
- Local Whanganui tribe consider the river an ancestor (fought for personhood for 140 years)
- Represented in court by one member of the tribe & one representative of the crown
2017: India gave the Ganges river & Yamuna River legal standing
- Due to New Zealand
- Poor protection however
2018: Colombian Amazon rainforest entity with rights
- After 15 plaintiffs sued the Colombian government for violating their constitutional rights to a healthy environment through deforestation
- Subject of rights, & beneficiary of the protection, conservation, maintenance, & restoration
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What can genetic engineering help native species adapt to?
Climate change
- Drought tolerance
- Heat stress tolerance
- Done with CRISPR to tomatoes to increase salt tolerance (modified 6 gene loci)
Invasive speices
- Diseases
- Done with American chestnut to be resistant to chestnut blight (added a wheat gene that produces an enzyme to destroy oxalate)
212
What could community-led conservation solve in modern conservation?
Effectively manage poaching
Integrate human activities and wildlife
Eliminate or drastically reduce the cost of maintaining wildlife or reserves
213
What is community conservation?
Conservation model where the local community are the primary stewards & stakeholders in wildlife conservation
Government is remotely involved if at all
Ex. National model in Namibia
214
Who is Gareth Owen-Smith?
Founder of the community-conservation approach now standard in Namibia
1980s: Namibia suffered from extended drought & extensive poaching had decimated wildlife
Owen-Smith was an idealistic conservationist who wanted to stop paoching in Namibia
- NGOs didn't work
- Locals ignored him
- One elder changed his perceptive
Elder complained of elephants, Owen asked why he didn't kill them, elder angrily said they were his elephants and now was could touch them
- Realized the people valued the wildlife, but had to poach to survive
Created a scenario where they could have their livelihoods & wildlife
215
How did Owen-Smith help Namibia keep their wildlife & their lives?
1982: Empowered the community to save wildlife for the benefit of the community
- Not for the benefit of others
- Convinced founders to fund local community members to support game guards (stop poachers, not arrest them)
- Game guards where those who were the best poachers (knew hte land, knew who else would be poaching, and needed the jobs the most)
1985: Illegal hunting halted (only hunting done was that which was approved by the community
- Wildlife populations recovered
- Community members struggling are provided food & support by NGOs
- Tourism began, increasing revenue
1987: Found the IRDNC organization
- Support & increase tourism
1990: Namibia becomes independent
- IRDNC becomes national standard towards conservation
1996: Namibia introduces legislation to allow community to claim conservancy from public land
- Up to 82 communal conservancies (44% of the land area of Namibia)
216
What was the IRDNC organization?
Integrated Rural Development & Nature Conservation (IRDNC)
| First community based project to support lodging tourism in Namibia
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What is needed for a Namibia community to apply to become a conservancy of their local environment?
Include a list of all community members
Outline the geographic area of the land
Declare their goals & objectives in managing wildlife
Discuss their plans with any communities found at the border of their boundaries
Distribute any funds from their conservancy to the community
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What animals have recovered in Namibia since community conservation?
Black rhino now the second largest free-roaming herd in Africa
- Poaching rates remain low in Namibia when high in other regions of Africa for ivory
Elephants = 500
- Only free roaming expanding lion populations (not including national parks)
Largest cheetah population in the world
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What does the community conservation model of Namibia contain now?
Makes the needs of hte local community a fundamental part
- Allow the community to use what they NEED (not want) from their local wildlife) as long as it is sustainable
Any individual action against the conservancy is an action against the community
- Strong social pressure to act good
Community has the resources to help those in need
Communities are not displaced
Very cost effective for the government
- Community does everything
Very effective at detecting poachers from outside the community
Communities can host trophy hunts or other sustainable harvesting practices for additional income
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How much of the global biodiversity sits on land occupied by tribal communities?
80%
Communities don't have the resources to protect these regions
Can the Namibian model be applied?
