MidTerm Flashcards
What is weak sense critical thinking? /5
to prove that you are correct
lazy thinker (most common)
find evidence that fits YOUR conclusion (conclusion 1st, evidence 2nd)
allows easy manipulation
results in a false consensus
What is a strong sense critical thinking? /5
to find the best possible argument
find evidence that dictates the conclusion (evidence 1st, conclusion 2nd)
can lead to a conclusion you do not accept BUT is true
rare and objective (not always)
takes into consideration the evidence that opposes your conclusion
What is confirmation bias?
the middleground between ‘what you want to believe’ and ‘online information’
What is a GOOD critical thinker? /6
open-minded
patient
good listener
minimize bias
observant
skeptical but not cynical
What does ‘skeptical not cynical’ mean?
argue but NOT contradict
What does it mean to be skeptical? /3
asking questions
looking for answers to these questions (not just accepting what is being told)
willing to change their minds if presented with proper arguments
What does it mean to be cynical? /3
rejecting information outright
does not do the work of a skeptic
scared of being tricked
What is an argument? /4
needs to have a contrary position
only emerge when there’s a disagreement
attempts to establish the truth of a claim
requires reasons + conclusion (skeptic)
What is a non-argument? /6
facts without a conclusion
personal opinions/emotions
leading questions
descriptions
explanations
What is an example of personal opinions/emotions a non-argument? /3
pounding fist
raising voice out of frustration/anger of the situation
general emotional emphasis
What is a leading question? /3
made to have the audience pre-determinedly agree or disagree
series of questions do not stand as reason
Why is a description not an argument? /3
it’s a series of facts
not evidence to the argument being discussed
asking for evidence, not a dictionary definition
Why are explanations not an argument? /2
is NOT an attempt to change one’s behavior/mind
use of ‘I’ or ‘me’
What are deductive arguments? /2
uncertain
arguments that MUST be true, IF they are both valid and sound
What is validity in deductive arguments?
impossible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true
What is the soundness of a deductive argument?
if the argument is valid, all premises are true
What are inductive arguments? /4
arguments that do NOT deal in absolutes
all about probability
discussion about weak and strong inductive arguments in relation to their probability
NO adlibbing/ filling the blanks
What are the 2 ways of framing arguments? /2
Denotative
Connotative
What is denotative?
literal meaning of something
What is connotative?
symbolic/underlying meaning of a word
What is a misonomer?
wrong/misleading name or designation
ex. funny bone, seahorse
What are weasel words?
remove all meaning out of another word
ex. up to 70% off
What is euphemism?
understates the severity of something
ex. let go = fired, passed away = died
What is hyperbole? /4
overstates the severity of something
a. k. a an exaggeration
used when something is not taken seriously (emotions = non-argument)
use of profanities
ex. working like slaves
What is visual imagery?
using/altering images to pass on a specific message
ex. ads showing positive images while listing horrific side effects of pharmaceutical medication
What are terms of framing arguments? /5
misnomer
weasel words
euphemism
hyperbole
visual imagery
What is a premise?
evidence to an argument/conclusion
What is an acceptable premise? /4
supported by a sub-argument
known to be true a priori
is common knowledge (!)
supported by a relevant figure of authority (!)
What does it mean for a premise to be ‘supported by a sub-argument’?
a building block/chain link to strengthen a conclusion
What does it mean for a premise to be ‘known to be true a priori’? /3
independent of experience
does not need verification to be proven
true by definition
Why is it cautious for a premise to be ‘common knowledge’? /5
depends on the demographic of who is being asked
geographically specific
depends on the time-period is was known in
can be wrong or turn out to be false = NOT NECESSARILY TRUE
the more common it is, the less specific it becomes
Why is it cautious for a premise to be ‘supported by a relevant figure of authority’? /8
can be a former figure of authority
CAN MAKE MISTAKES
has a type of specialization BUT no correlation to the subject being discussed
needs certifiable proof outside their title
must be reviewed by someone of the same field
must be unbiased
best if from a peer-reviewed journal/study
NEVER 100% sure, but sure enough
What is a rejected premise? /5
can find a counterexample to the premise
a priori false
contradiction between premises
vague or ambiguous
lacks justification
Why is a possible counterexample immediately reject a premise? /2
only need one (1) to counter a whole argument
premise is no longer valid
What is a priori false?
premise false by definition
What does it mean ‘contradiction between premises’? /2
does not belong in supporting the argument
immediately rejected
What does it mean when a premise is ‘vague or ambiguous’? /3
use of weasel words
no precision or detail
has multiple external factors that can change the result = several perspectives = X
What does it mean when a premise ‘lacks justification’?
no sub-argument
What is an argument fallacy? /3
something that is false
common mistakes often seen in arguments
tricks to get public approval
What are the different argument fallacies? /15
non-sequitur
post-hoc fallacy
begging the question
circular reasoning
red herring
either/or
false analogy
bandwagon
two wrongs make a right
hasty generalization
slippery slope
improper use of authority
nirvana fallacy
sunk cost fallacy
fundamental attribute error
What is a non-sequitur?
suggests a logical connection that is not necessarily there
ex. If I come to class, I should get an A for participation = X
What is post-hoc fallacy? /2
when one event follows another and we wrongly conclude that there’s a cause-effect relationship
non-sequitur + temporal progression (time)
ex. luck/coincidence
What is ‘begging the question’? /2
argument that is premised on an assumption that may not be accurate
use of ‘obviously’ or ‘everybody knows’
What is circular reasoning? /2
avoids providing a point
attempts to trick people by restating a premise or conclusion in a different way
ex. the PM has Canada’s best interests in mind, so he was elected into office
What is a red herring?
irrelevant fact is brought up to divert one’s attention from the important/main subject
ex. republicans claimed that Obama is a ‘secret Muslim’ because of his middle name
What is ‘either/or’?
an issue is presented as only having 2 possible outcomes
ex. “you are either with us or with the terrorists” - G. W Bush
What is a false analogy?
comparison between 2 things that are NOT similar, but presented as if they are
ex. government is like business
What is a bandwagon?
use the desire to belong/join in as an alternative to presenting a coherent argument
ex. if your friends jumped off a bridge, would you follow them?
What is a ‘two wrongs make a right’?
justify behavior based on the actions of others
ex. I am unhappy, so you should be unhappy as well
What is a hasty generalization?
jumping to conclusions based off insufficient evidence
ex. my friend failed the course, so it must be hard
What is a slippery slope?
oversimplification that suggests certain NEGATIVE consequences will result if a certain course of action is not taken
ex. if same-sex marriage is legal, will the people push to be allowed to marry animals?
What is a an improper use of authority?
quoting an “authority” to justify an argument, BUT the person quoted is not legitimate on the subject
ex. Canada’s major bank is quoted to support cuts to social spending
What is a nirvana fallacy?
rejecting a proposal because it’s not perfect REGARDLESS if it’s better than the available plausible alternatives
What is a sunk cost fallacy? /2
continuing on the current course EVEN THOUGH its readily apparent it is not working
HOWEVER, you have already invested so much time, money, effort, energy, etc
ex. sitting through a bad movie
What is a fundamental attribution error?
gravitate towards personality based explanations of observed behaviors
ex. your friend fails an exam, so you assume she is lazy
What is cognitive bias? /5
behavioral economics
people are rational actors = make to benefit their own self-interest
Daniel Kahneman
System 1 + 2
Expected Value = (odds of gain) x (value of gain) by Bernoulli
What is system 1? /5
brains are lazy
automatic and impulsive
geared for survival
causes us to make mistakes
one condition is easier to meet than 2
What us system 2? /4
consciously awake and considerate
helps exert self-control
problem-solving
recent part of evolutionary history
What is the relationship between system 1 + 2?
constantly fighting on who should be in control
What is important about cognitive bias? /2
when making decisions give yourself time
try not to give in into your emotions
What is availability bias? /2
things that we can picture more vividly, we believe are more likely to occur
results in overestimation/underestimation
What is the anchoring bias? /3
comparison affects value
the 1st piece of information stays embedded in one’s mind
has people reconsider their options
What is optimism bias?
think the law of average does not apply for that specific individual (ourselves)
What is implicit bias? /2
making assumptions that are not justified
result of system 1
How do you overcome implicit bias? /3
when should the decision be made?
slow down
recognize the limitations of your knowledge
What is the sponge method? /4
passive way of reading
does not differentiate between important and non-essential information
easy but INEFFICIENT
trying to absorb all the information at once
What is the panning for gold method? /5
active way of reading
handful of small-key information is retained
focuses on conclusions + reasons that support it
rids of non-essential information
standard form of making an argument
What is the standard form of making an argument? /3(6)
expressing an argument in the most minimal way possible
C = conclusion P1 = premise 1 P2 = premise 2 P# = premise #
WORKING BACKWARDS
