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PSYCHOLOGY 302 MIDTERM > Midterm #1 need sept 29th lecture still and oct 1??? > Flashcards

Midterm #1 need sept 29th lecture still and oct 1??? Flashcards

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1
Q

Why should we study infant development?

A
  • To better understand human nature.
  • To improve people’s lives: Parenting, Schooling, Support (Social workers, therapists, psychologists, etc.)
  • Social Policy.
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2
Q

What is nature and nurture?

A

Nature : biology, genes.

Nurture : Social/Physical environmental influences.

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3
Q

What are Nativists and Empiricists?

A

Nativists : Humans endowed with knowledge at birth. (Rene Descartes)
Empiricists : Knowledge is acquired.(John Lock)

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4
Q

What is an example of nurture?

A

Example : Calluses.
Triggered by irritation –> Experiences, environment.
-Develop because we have genes that lead us to a thickening of skin in the case of irritation –> Nature.

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5
Q

What is a passive role in development?

A

Passive : Children as recipients of their environment.

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6
Q

What is an Active role in development?

A

Children as shaping their own development.

  • Influence their own experiences –> choose where to look, select what to play with, etc.
  • Interpret their experiences.
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7
Q

Do characteristics/abilities in infancy predict later development?

A

yes and no. Marshmellow task predicted self control at age 18 as well as SAT scores, better relationships, health…

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8
Q

What is the role of context in predicting later development?

A

Step 1: Had children do art project
“Unreliable environment” –> Experimenter did not bring new supplies.
“Reliable environment” –> Experimenter returned with new supplies.

Step 2: Repeat with stickers

Step 3: Marshmallow task.

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9
Q

what are some examples of the role of context?

A
  • Parents
  • Socioeconomic status
  • Time Period
  • Culture
  • Siblings
  • Daycare
  • neighbourhood
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10
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of Naturalistic observation?

A

Strengths are…

  1. Can reflect behaviour as it exists in real life.
  2. Can obtain lots of information

Limitations are…

  1. May be influenced by observer.
  2. Need to analyze lots of information.
  3. Challenging for infrequent behaviour.
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11
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of Structured Observation?

A

Strengths are…

  1. Useful in observing rare behaviours.
  2. Provides all subjects equal. opportunity/context for behaviour.
  3. Provides control over the situation.

Limitations are…
1. May not accurately represent behaviour in real life.

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12
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of Self/Other report?

A

Strengths are…
1. Quick, easy, can gather a lot of data.

Limitations are…

  1. May not answer honestly
  2. Infants cannot answer
  3. Questions can be biased.
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13
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of Psychophysiological methods?

A

Strengths are…

  1. Doesn’t require language or behavioural response.
  2. Asses biological underpinnings.

Limitations are…

  1. Expensive equipment.
  2. Can be loud and scary to infants.
  3. Can be difficult to interpret.
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14
Q

What do we know about studying infants?

A 
Many common research methods wont work so we have to use what infants can do, and make inferences based on their behaviour. 
State of arousal
-Fussiness
-Awake vs asleep
Little/no command of language
Short attention span
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15
Q

What can infants do? (go through months.)

A 
At birth --> Looking, Sucking, Kicking, Heart Rate, Brain Responses, Some basic imitation. 
5months- Reach
9Months - Crawl 
11Months - point
12 months - Walk
12-18 months --> Minimal Language.
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16
Q

How do we study infants using preference looking?
What is an example study?
What does the difference in looking mean?

A

-Show 2 items/categories, measure looking to each.
Example: Question: are infants sensitive to race?
Design: Show infants own-race and other-race faces, measure looking to each.
The difference in looking means… discrimination, prefer one to the other, but is it due to familiarity? Novelty? Perceptual differences? dont know.

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17
Q

Can infants preference looking change?

A

Yes, with age, Stimuli used, length of trial, etc.

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18
Q

What is preference sucking?

A

High-amplitude sucking - Newborns are trained that when they produce a hard suck, a sound plays.

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19
Q

What is preference reaching and who do we us this with?

A

Preference reaching is when you give the infant two options of things that they may want and they reach for the one they prefer.
We use this with older infants.

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20
Q

What do we use habituation for?

A

To examine learning and discrimination.
IDEA: We are attracted to novelty.
When we are repeatedly shown a stimulus, we get bored.

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21
Q

What is the habituation phase?

A

Repeated presentation of same/same type of stimulus until they get bored.

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22
Q

What is the Test Phase?

A

Where you present the same stimulus and a new stimulus.

*If infants have learned during habituation, should increase attention to new stimulus (dishabituation).

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23
Q

How is Habituation identified in infants?

A
  • Most commonly used with looking time.

- But can also be with heart rate, sucking reaching, playing, etc.

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24
Q

What can Habituation tell us about?

A

Infant learning = if infants habituate (get bored), that indicates they have learned about that stimulus.

Discrimination = If infants dishabituate to a new stimulus, That indicates they can distinguish it from the original stimulus.

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25
Q

What can Habituation not tell us about?

A

Preference.

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26
Q

What is the idea of Violation of Expectation?

A

Idea = Infants look more at things when they don’t fit their expectation.

2 Groups of infants (or infants tested 2 times):
*Shown situation consistent with reality/beliefs.
*Shown situation inconsistent with reality/beliefs.
Which situation has greater looking?
(Minnie mouse example)

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27
Q

What are the Psychophysiological methods to studying infants?

A

-Heartbeat (Common in utero)
-Pupil Dialation
-Cortisol
-Brain responses :
*EEG/ERP
(Electroencephalogram/Event-Related Potential)
*NIRS (Near-infrared spectroscopy)

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28
Q

What is the Genes-Environment interaction?

A

Genes influence how we respond to the environment.

EXAMPLE: Breastfeeding.

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29
Q

What is the Genes-Environment Correlation? Passive, Evocative & Active.

A

Genes shape the environments to which we are exposed.
Passive –> Parents provide environment influenced by their own genes (shared with child)
Evocative –> Based on children’s genes, child evokes different environments from others.
Active –> Children seek environments that fit with their genetic tendencies.

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30
Q

What is Epigenetics?

A

Study of changes in gene expression caused by mechanisms other than the gene sequence (ie. environment).

31
Q

Where does our Epigenome come from?

A

It develops in response to the environment.
-Nutrition, exposure to toxins, stress, positive/negative experiences.
EXAMPLE: Ouelle-Morin et al. (2013)
*Examined serotonin transporter (SERT) GENE on monozygotic twins.
*Followed from age 5-10
*Twins differed in their experience of bullying
*Measured methylation on SERT gene –> Chemical; Epigenetic markers.
ALSO INHERITED but, most epigenetic markers are ‘wiped clean’ in reproduction (“Reprogramming”)
BUT evidence suggests some genes escape being reprogrammed (“Imprinting”) And can then transmit across generations.

32
Q

What do we mean by epigenetics across development?

A

Your epigenome throughout the lifespan.
-Some epigenetic modifications only have effects in sensitive periods:
Much of epigenetic modification occurs on cells related to organ function.
–>Since organs develop early, they are sensitive to epigenetic change during that time.

33
Q

What are the building blocks of the brain?

A

Neuron -Transmit information
Synapses - Connect between neurons.
Glial cells - Support/protect neurons
Form Myelin sheath around axons –> More efficient information transfer.

34
Q

What are the lobes of the cerebral cortex?

A

Occipital Lobes –> Visual information.

Parietal Lobes –> Sensory information (smell, touch, taste), spatial information.

Temporal Lobes –> Face processing, auditory information, memory.

Frontal Lobes –> Emotion regulation, planning, Organizing behaviour, integrating information from other brain areas.

35
Q

What are the important processes in brain development?

A
  • Neurogenesis
  • Myelination
  • Synaptogenesis
  • Synaptic Pruning
36
Q

What is plasticity?

A

The ability of the brain to change.

37
Q

What are experience-expectance processes?

A
  • Based on general human experience
  • Brain “Expects” certain input
  • Sensitive periods.
38
Q

What are experience-dependent processes?

A

-Unique to each individual; Shaped by specific experience.

39
Q

What are the steps of scientific research?

A
  1. Formulate a question
  2. Develop a hypothesis
  3. Design a study to test a hypothesis
  4. Gather data
  5. Analyze data; Draw conclusions
  6. Share results.
40
Q

What is Naturalistic Observation?

A

Observing behaviour of interest in the natural environment.

41
Q

What is a laboratory/structured observations?

A

Set up a situation to evoke behaviour of interest.

  • More control
  • Allows all subjects equal opportunity to display behaviours of interest.
42
Q

What are self/other reports?

A

Individuals asked to provide information on their perceptions, thoughts, experiences etc.
(Parents/Caregivers)

43
Q

What are psychophsyiological methods?

A

Measuring Pyschophysiological processes/reactions.

  • Bodily responses
  • Brain responses.
44
Q

What is correlation coefficient?

A

Measures direction and strength of the association between 2 variables.

45
Q

What do correlational and quasi-experimental designs examine?

A

Relationships between variables. No variables are manipulated/assigned.

46
Q

What are some characteristics of experimental designs

A
  • Allows inference about cause and effect
  • Random assignment
  • Independent Variable: Controlled/manipulated by the experimenter
  • Dependent Variable: What the experimenter expects to be influenced by the iV
47
Q

What are longitudinal designs?

A

Test the same group of participants at different ages across time.

48
Q

What are some limitations of longitudinal deisgns?

A
  • Expensive
  • Time-consuming
  • Selective attrition (drop-out)
  • Practice effects
  • Effects unique to the cohort.
49
Q

What are cross-sectional designs?

A

Tests different groups of participants at different ages, at the same time.

50
Q

What are cross-sectional design limitations?

A
  • Cohort effects

- No information about continuity of development.

51
Q

What is genotype?

A

The underlying genetic makeup of an individual organism.

52
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

The observable traits and behaviours of an individual organism.

53
Q

What contributes to ones phenotype?

A

Genotype
Environment = everything not in the genetic material.
Interplay between genes and environment.

54
Q

What are the four major developmental processes?

A

Survivability: Development proceeds in a survival-based order of importance.

Basic Structure to Specialization :
Organs first develop their basic structures. then get more detailed.

Cephalocaudal Direction: At any given time, structures closer to the head are more developed than those closer to the feet.

Proximodistal: Structures develop from inside to outside.

55
Q

What does prenatal development begin with?

A

Conception –> when a males sperm pierces the membrane of a females ovum
*Many different methods than sexual intercourse.

56
Q

What are other ways you can become pregnant?

A

Artifical insemination : male sperm is inserted directly into a womans cervix/uterus with a syringe.

In Vitro Fertilization(IVF) : A women takes fertility medication to release more eggs, her ova are surgically extracted and mixed with a males sperm in a lab dish and an embryo is inserted into womb.

57
Q

What is the Germinal Period?

A

Begins with fertilization
-Zygote travels down fallopian tube, dividing and differentiating

Rapid cell division
Creation of inner and outer layers of cells.
IMPLANTATION: (12-14) days : Attaches to the uterine wall.

58
Q

What is the Embryotic period?

A

-Inner cell differentiates into:
Ectoderm : Skin and sense organs, nervous system, brain. (Neural tube begins to form in 3rd-4th week and will develop into the brain and spinal cord)

Mesoderm: Muscles, circulatory system, skeletal, reproductive, and excretory systems

Endoderm: Digestive system, Lungs, Urinary tracts, galnds.

59
Q

What is the Embryotic period support system - outer cell?

A

Support system - develops out of outer cell.
Amniotic sac: Fluid dilled membrane surrounding the fetus.

Placenta : Network of blood vessels that supports (Exchange of oxygen and nutrients from mother) and protects the fetus.

Umbilical cord: Tube of blood vessels connecting fetus and placenta.

60
Q

By 2 months what does the baby look like?

A

1 inch long, weighs 1 gram

All major organs have formed.

61
Q

When is the Fetal period?

A

Begins around 8/9 weeks - When differentiation of major organs is complete.

Drastic changes in appearance.

3months: begins to swallow, urinate, kick, yawn, hiccup, blink…

6 months: capable of breathing, crying, sleep/wake cycles.

62
Q

What are the babies experiencing in Utero?

A

Movement: Spontaneous movements by 5-6 weeks.
Sensations:
Touch - grasping, rubbing, sucking
Taste/smell: from amniotic fluid
Hearing - fully developed by 23-26 weeks; prenatal environment quite loud
Vision - Likely minimal experience.

PAIN?? well we dont know.

63
Q

What can we learn when the baby is in utero?

A

Can measure heart rate for interest: “High response” –> decleration in heart rate = interested.

“Low response” –> Heart rate returns to normal = Lost interest.

Can discriminate different sounds, male vs female voices, native vs. non native language.

Respond differently to mothers vs. strangers voice.

64
Q

What are the individual differences in a baby?

A

Can already be seen in prenatal period.
Variability in heart rare - more variability = more advances language and play at 2 years.

VARIABILITY IN ACTIVITY
More active fetuses–> More active children

More active fetuses –> As children, better able to handle frustration, less fearful

65
Q

What do we know about prenatal sensitivities?

A

Vulnerable time

  • Can be difficult to identify/study hazards to prenatal development
  • Cant randomly assign
  • Often many factors confounded: poor, diet, air pollution, inadequate care, etc.
  • Effects can emerge later “Sleeper effects”
66
Q

What are tetragens?

A 
External agenst (ex. substances) that can cause damage to fetal development. 
examples - Thalidomide, accutane, Alcohol can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.
67
Q

What are some other prenatal sensitivities…?

A

Nutrition: Malnutrition, Deficiencies in folic acid, zinc, protein –> linked to central nervous system dysfunction, low birth weight, prematurity.

Disease: Rubella–> Deafness, blindness, disability, untreated HIV, ZIKA, COVID?

68
Q

Is stress/emotional state a prenatal sensitivity ?

A

yes.
High stress is linked with risk for prematurity.
Stress linked with long-term risks for cognitive development, language.

69
Q

What are the preparation signs of labour?

A
  • Fetus is typically in the head down position.
  • Lightening: Fetus descends close to the cervix
  • Braxton hicks contractions: “False” contractions that begin weeks before labour, starting to open up the cervix.
70
Q

What is Birth stage #1?

A
  • Effacement and dilation.
  • Average duration of stage one is 12-18 hours.
  • Oxytocin produced by mother triggers uterine contractions.
  • Contractions widen the cervix; cervix softens and dialates.
71
Q

What is Birth stage #2?

A

Birth of the baby!!

  • Average duration fo stage two is 10-20mins
  • Urge to push
  • Contractions push baby’s head and body through the birth canal.
72
Q

What is Birth stage #3?

A

Afterbirth

  • Average duration is 20-40 mins
  • Contractions expulse placenta and fetal membranes.
73
Q

What are the different types of birthing options?

A

Vaginal vs Cesarean delivery

  • Home birth vs. hospital birth
  • obstetrician vs midwife
  • pain medication –> Epidural block.

PSYCHOLOGY 302 MIDTERM (1 decks)

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