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Biogeography > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Biogeography

A
  • The study of the past and present geographic distributions of plants and animals and other organisms including the environmental and evolutionary forces that produce those distributions
  • Essentially, why a biological individual lives where it lives
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2
Q

When did biogeography develop as a discipline?

A

The 18th century.

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3
Q

Linnaeus, 1735

A
  • Began to describe and name the animals and plants of the world
  • He recorded the type of environment each species was found and where it was found (geographic location)
  • Conflict emerging in his work between the words of the bible and the changing characteristics over time –not consistent with a single event/act of God
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4
Q

George Buffon, 1761

A
  • Identified similar environments could be found in different regions of the world but they contained different groupings of organisms of the same species
  • Began to identify that mammals found in North America were also found in Eurasia and he hypothesized that they could have once travelled between the two continents
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5
Q

Captain, James Cook (1772-1775)

A
  • Collected thousands of species of plants
  • Identified differences based on separations by landscape barriers, water, and climatic differences
  • That there were more species (greater diversity) closer to the equator and few species and less diversity toward the poles
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6
Q

Dr. Joseph Hooker, 1843

A
  • Dr. Joseph Hooker returned from New Zealand, Australia, Tasmania and South America with a collection of specimens.
  • Noticed that the same plant families were found on different continents
  • He concluded that the distance separating these continents was too great for long-distance dispersal, therefore, the southern land areas were once joined (vicariancebiogeographers)
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7
Q

What is a variance event?

A
  • A process in which two or more populations of the same (but geographically separated and non-interbreeding) species become less similar to each other over time
  • Differences evolve due to mutation or survival advantages of different traits in differing environments, and eventually become they become so different that they are considered a distinct species
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8
Q

Charles Darwin (19th Century)

A
  • began to realize that species were not as unchanging as people thought
  • Came to suggest that organisms were related to one another by evolution
  • Darwin recognized that animals and plants produce far more offspring than would be needed to simply replace the breeding pair
  • Therefore, there must be competition for survival
  • natural selection. Offspring with more favourable characteristics lived longer
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9
Q

Alfred Wallace(January 1823 –November 1913)

A
  • Thought along the same lines as Darwin
  • The ideas of natural selection were published by both Darwin and Wallace –the evidence of evolution
  • Darwin’s publication “On the Origin of Species” was laid out logically and persuasively and became popular
  • Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace disagreed on the importance of the geological breakup of landmasses in generating biogeographic disjunctions in the Southern Hemisphere (dispersalists)
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10
Q

Adolf Engler (1879)

A

was the first botanist to make a world map, showing the distributions of regional floras

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11
Q

Zoogeography

A

began to develop in the 19th century onward, mapping warm-blooded mammal distributions throughout the world

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12
Q

Leon Croizat

A
  • created panbiogeography
  • species of very different geographic patterns share similar geographic patterns
  • different species have very different dispersal patterns
  • shared patterns are not likely to have arisen from long distance dispersal
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13
Q

Panbiogeography

A

plots distributions of a particular taxon or group of taxa on maps and connects the disjunct distribution areas or collection localities together with lines called tracks

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14
Q

Linking Geography and Evolutionary History

A
  • The only explanation for repeated patterns…is that taxa once had much larger distributions before geologic events
  • The over time, events split the once continuous ranges
  • Most speciation occurred following vicariance events
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15
Q

Vicariance Biogeography

A
  • developed following panbiogeography
  • Dispersal events were rare and unimportant
  • All speciation arose from the splitting of once continuous ranges through geological events
  • Climactic changes as well as geologic changes can create biogeographic barriers and produce vicariance events
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16
Q

Modern Biogeography

A

-Modern biogeography began to look at the connectivity of earth continents through time, that may have at one point, been one large continental mass

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17
Q

What is an ecosystem?

A
  • A community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system
  • These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows
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18
Q

Ecology

A
  • Derived from “oikos” (Greek) meaning ‘home’

- the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment

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19
Q

Environment

A

all factors outside the organism that influence it

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20
Q

Factors are either

A
  • abiotic (physical and chemical)

- biotic (other organisms)

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21
Q

Proximal

A
  • patterns explained by the present environment

- Eg. How did the weather (eg. rain) this summer influence plant growth in the region?

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22
Q

Ultimate

A
  • patterns explained by the past environment (i.e. ecological experiences of ancestors through evolution)
  • Eg. How has the climate over the past 1000 years influenced the plant species present in the region?
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23
Q

Ecology deals with three levels

A
  1. Individuals
  2. Populations
  3. Communities
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24
Q

Evolutionary Ecology

A

–individuals are the units of evolution

-Assumes: specializations imposed by evolutionary history

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25
Q

Physiological Ecology

A

individual responses to environment

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26
Q

Behavioral Ecology

A

individual responses to other individuals

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27
Q

Populations

A
  • abundance/distribution patterns of groups of organisms: processes of birth, death, migration
  • evolutionary change occurs at the population level
  • Interactions of organisms of the same species
  • Interactions of two populations of different species
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28
Q

Communities

A
  • interactions of multiple populations of different species
  • Structure and species interactions
  • energy, nutrient, chemical pathways → Ecosystem Ecology
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29
Q

Conservation Ecology

A

blend of evolution, population, community, and ecosystem ecology → apply to conservation issues

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30
Q

Unitary Individuals

A

physically and genetically distinct units (i.e. individuals) each arising from a genetically distinct zygote

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31
Q

Modular Individuals

A

consist of many interconnected units derived from the same zygote (e.g. plants, corals, sponges)
-Modular individuals can exist separately and be physiologically independent (-not attached to the parent)

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32
Q

Biological species

A

-species is defined on the basis of reproductive (genetic) isolation

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33
Q

Phylogenetic Species

A

-species is defined based on a pattern of ancestry and descent and shared derived characteristics

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34
Q

Subspecies

A

Where a species can exist in a number of different forms that are sufficiently stable

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35
Q

Polytipic

A

Consists of two or more subspecies

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36
Q

Monotypic species

A

Does not include subspecies or smaller, intraspecific taxa

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37
Q

Taxonomy

A

The science of classifying species

  • historically, based on phenotypic features
  • modern day, based on DNA
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38
Q

Taxon (plural) taxa (singular)

A

Is an undefined unit of classification

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39
Q

How is genetic diversity lost?

A
  • small population size: smaller populations lose genetic diversity faster than large populations (Island biogeography principles)
  • changes in patterns of genetic diversity among populations
  • loss of allelic richness in small populations
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40
Q

Biodiversity

A

-the variety of life and life processes and includes levels of: landscape, ecosystem, species, genetic

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41
Q

landscape

A

is a collection of ecosystems

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42
Q

ecosystem

A

a discrete area (i.e., forest stand) that can be characterized by its plant and animal communities as well as the associated abiotic (physical rather than biological) conditions

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43
Q

community

A

(ecological) -a group of interacting plant and/or animal populations

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44
Q

population

A

all individuals of a given species in a prescribed area

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45
Q

species

A

a group of organisms that share similar features

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46
Q

genetic

A

a group of organisms that share specific genetic attributes

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47
Q

population

A

a group of individuals of one species living together

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48
Q

spatial structure

A

how individuals organize themselves in space

ex) -geographic distribution/range
- patterns of dispersal
- population size

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49
Q

age/size structure

A 
number of individuals in each age/size class
ex)-demographic rates (birth, death, migration) of individuals change throughout their lifetime
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50
Q

genetic structure

A

genetic composition of all individuals combined within the population

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51
Q

What determines population size?

A

Demographic processes: birth rates, death rates, migration rates

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52
Q

geographic range

A

entire area of the world where a species can be found

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53
Q

density

A

differences in abundance of species within its geographic range

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54
Q

carrying capacity

A

Capability of the land base to support a certain number of organisms per unit area

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55
Q

niche

A
  • a two dimensional consideration of how a particular species occupies a particular space –both biotic and abiotic considerations
  • describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and competition
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56
Q

Taxonomic Hierarchy

A
  • Kingdom
  • Phylum
  • Class
  • Order
  • Family
  • Genus
  • Species
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57
Q

Taxonomy

A
  • Is knows as systematics –the main goal of taxonomy is to determine the evolutionary relationship between groups of organisms
  • Taxonomists are therefore also know as systematisists
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58
Q

Phytogeographers

A

study the present and past distributions of plants

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59
Q

Zoogeographers

A

study the present and past distribution of animals

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60
Q

Ecological Biogeography

A

the study of the modern relationships between organisms and the environment

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61
Q

Historical Biogeography

A

the study of past distributions and evolution of life

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62
Q

Conservation Biogeography

A

Applying the lessons learned from ecological, historical and biological biogeography to identify restoration of natural environments

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63
Q

Habitat

A

explicit spatial environment in which a species can be found

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64
Q

Generalists

A

species that tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions

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65
Q

Specialists

A

species that have very narrow environmental tolerances

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66
Q

food chain

A

pathway of food/energy transfer between species

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67
Q

Trophic levels

A

groups of species that derive food energy from a similar source

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68
Q

Guilds

A

groups of species within each trophic level that exploit a common resource in a similar manner

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69
Q

Basal species

A

feed on no other species but are fed upon by others

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70
Q

primary producers

A

plants

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71
Q

intermediate species

A

feed on other species and are prey for other species

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72
Q

primary consumers

A

herbivores

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73
Q

secondary consumers

A

carnivores (meso-predators)

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74
Q

top predators

A

feed on other species but are not prey for other species

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75
Q

omnivores

A

feed on more than one trophic levels

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76
Q

functional group

A

spp that perform the same role in a community (e.g. decomposers, top predators, herbivores, carbon-fixers)

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77
Q

Limiting(welfare) factors

A

abiotic parameters that most affect (i.e., ‘limit’) the ability of an organism to survive in an area

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78
Q

Critical(welfare) factor

A

the most important abiotic parameter that affects the ability of an organism to survive in an area

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79
Q

Ecological Sustainability

A

maintenance of biological diversity and ecosystem integrity from one generation to the next ad infinitum

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80
Q

ecosystem integrity

A

Addresses the ecological processes that are essential for ecosystems to function

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81
Q

ecosystem

A

The biotic communities and their associated abiotic attributes that interact in a defined geographic area

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82
Q

management

A

achieving goals or objectives set by society at large

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83
Q

ecosystem management

A
  • Achieving societal goals in a defined geographic area for the interacting biotic communities and their abiotic environment
  • Note that humans are a component of any ecosystem
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84
Q

sustainable development

A

The ability to meet humanity’s current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

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85
Q

landscape measure

A

Representation of all ecosystems that occurred historically

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86
Q

cognitive hierarchy

A
  • Behaviors
  • Behavioral Intentions
  • Attitudes and Norms
  • Value Orientations
  • Values
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87
Q

evolution

A

genetically controlled changes in physiology, anatomy, and behaviour that occur to species over time.

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88
Q

speciation

A

development of two or more species from a common ancestor. Ex: Finches
-Speciation events are caused by evolutionary changes. Ex: drought in Galapagos Islands-beaks strong enough for solid nuts

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89
Q

locus

A

point at which a gene is located on the chromosome

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90
Q

alleles

A

different gene forms that exist for a given locus

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91
Q

heterozygous –when a locus has different alleles associated with it

A

when a locus has different alleles associated with it

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92
Q

Genotype

A

set of genes an individual caries

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93
Q

Phenotype

A

observable characteristics based on an individuals genotype and environment

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94
Q

allopatric speciation

A

formation of new species by geographic isolation

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95
Q

sympatric speciation

A

formation of new species within the same geographic area

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96
Q

Mutations

A

differences in life cycle timing, such as reproduction timing

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97
Q

Cope’s Rule

A

evolution to larger body size.

-Example: Horses –began as a small dog-sized mammal

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98
Q

founder effect

A

The loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population

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99
Q

bottleneck

A

a sharp reduction in size of a population due to environmental random events (earthquakes, floods, fires, or droughts) or human activities
-Likely that certain genes will be lost

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100
Q

Peripatric Speciation

A

When peripheral populations become geographically isolated from the main population

  • Speciation is more likely to occur at the edges of a species range
  • Central populations have higher genetic diversity
  • This causes peripatric speciation
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101
Q

Trophic Cascade

A

when the abundance of an important prey species has been suppressed, it results in a loss of food for higher predators in the food web

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102
Q

Rapoport’s Rule

A

pattern of decreasing range size toward the equator compared to those that live in higher latitudes

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103
Q

Historical Biogeography

A

is the study of species specific to evolution and over evolutionary time scales using a combination of phylogenetic and distributional information

104
Q

universe date

A

13.7 billion years ago

105
Q

The Big Bang

A

-single point exploded
-Expanding Universe Theory
Galaxies, stars, and planets formed by coalescence of dust and gas

106
Q

Earth Formation date

A

4.6 billion years ago

107
Q

Formation of the Atmosphere and Oceans

A
  • Earth’s atmosphere formed from gases emitted by volcanoes
  • Over 4 billion years ago, water vapor from volcanic emissions condensed out of the atmosphere and collected in low-lying areas of crust, adding to and forming oceans and inland water bodies
108
Q

Evolution of life on earth date

A

3.5 billion years ago

109
Q

Cyanobacteria

A

is a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis, and are the only photosynthetic prokaryotes able to produce oxygen, remain a hugely important part of the food chain providing food sources for snails, insects, zooplankton and other algae species

110
Q

Stromatolites

A

colonies of cyanobacteria

111
Q

oxygen concentrations increased during

A

Great Oxidation Event 2.4 billion years ago —ozonosphere (Ozone layer) formed

112
Q

Ozonosphere blocks UV rays

A

making it possible for life to leave oceans and move onto land

113
Q

Multicellular life date

A

≈1.2 billion years ag

114
Q

Land plants date

A

≈475 million years ago

115
Q

Dinosaurs date

A

≈240 million years ago —went extinct 66 million years ago, (probably large asteroid impact

116
Q

Earliest mammals date

A

≈210 million years ago

117
Q

Modern humans date

A

≈200,000 years ago

118
Q

which mass extinction is it believed that we are living through?

A

the 6th

119
Q

End Ordovician Mass Extinction

A
  • 444 million years ago
  • 86% of species lost
  • Reason: occurred over the period of about a million years and was likely caused by a short, severe ice age that lowered sea levels, possibly triggered by the uplift of the Appalachians
  • The newly exposed silicate rock sucked CO2out of the atmosphere, chilling the planet
120
Q

Late Devonian Mass Extinction

A
  • 375 million years ago
  • 75% of species lost
  • Reason: A variety ofcauseshave been proposed for the Devonian mass extinctions including asteroid impacts, global anoxia (widespread dissolved oxygen shortages), plate tectonics, sea level changes, and climatic change
121
Q

How many years between the first two mass extinctions?

A

69 million

122
Q

End Permian Mass Extinction

A
  • 251 million years ago
  • 96% of species lost
  • Known as “the great dying”, this was by far the worst extinction event
  • Cause: A perfect storm of natural catastrophes -A cataclysmic eruption near Siberia blasted CO2 into the atmosphere -Methanogenic bacteria responded by releasing methane, a potent greenhouse gas -Global temperatures surged while oceans acidified and stagnated, belching poisonous hydrogen sulfide
123
Q

End Triassic Mass Extinction

A
  • 200 million years ago
  • 80% of species lost
  • Cause: Many scientists contend that this event was caused by climate change and rising sea levels resulting from the sudden release of large amounts of carbon dioxide
124
Q

End Cretaceous Mass Extinction

A
  • 66 million years ago
  • 76% of all species lost
  • Cause: asteroid impact although some scientists attribute causes: volcanic eruptions, climate change, sea level change
125
Q

Pangaea

A

Gondwanaland and Laurasia -formed about 270 million years ago and broke apart about 200 million years a

126
Q

plate boundaries

A

margins of plates

127
Q

Earthquake activity

A

reveals plate boundary location

128
Q

fossils

A
  • Lithified remains of dead plants and animals
  • Primarily found in sedimentary rocks
  • Strata used to date fossils
129
Q

active dispersal

A
  • Forcible ejection of seeds from pod
  • Dispersal doesn’t require an external vector
  • seeds may travel up to 7m from parent plant
  • Gradual widening of range referred to as “diffusion”
  • Known as “autochory”
130
Q

Passive Dispersal

A

-Known as Allochory
-Seeds float and remain viable in water, allowing for riparian transport over large distances -“hydrochory”
-Wind dispersal is called “anemochory”
These methods of dispersal represent “jump dispersal” event

131
Q

zoochory

A

plant dispersal by animals

132
Q

Pre-Anthropocene barriers

A

Geographic features that block dispersal and colonization

133
Q

Pre-Anthropocene corridors

A

Geographic features that promote dispersal and colonization

134
Q

water barriers

A

oceans are barriers to freshwater fish, amphibians and terrestrial animals

135
Q

land barriers

A

land can be barriers to marine organisms

136
Q

environmental barriers

A
  • Moisture
  • Temperature
  • Light
  • CO2
  • Nutrients
  • Oxygen
  • Pressure
137
Q

biological barriers

A

Animal behavior

  • avoiding crossing long distances
  • Lack of prey for stenophagous predators (eat only a limited variety of food)
  • Interspecific competition (competing with other species)
138
Q

corridors

A
  • Areas that allow unrestricted movement of all taxa from either side of it
  • Bering Land Bridge
  • Can be artificially created… Banff
139
Q

Great American Exchange

A
  • movement of terrestrial fauna
  • Exchange between mammals of North and South America
  • NA mammals more successful at colonizing the south than SA mammals and birds at dispersing north
  • Dense tropical forest became a filter that allowed dispersal of tropical forest species but restricted S-ward migration of NA grazing faun
140
Q

anthropochory

A

Transport of seeds/species by people

141
Q

The Pleistocene Epoch

A
  • most recent ice age
  • began about 2.6 million years ago
  • and lasted about 11,700 years ago
142
Q

distribution

A

An order or pattern formed by the tendency of a sufficiently large number of observations of individuals which represents the spread of the area they occupy

143
Q

range

A

A species range is the area where a particular species can be found during its lifetime. Species range includes areas where individuals or communities may migrate or hibernate. Every living species on the planet has its own unique geographic range

144
Q

ecological biogeography

A

Is concerned with the short-term periods of time, at smaller scale, with local, within habitat, or intracontinental questions and primarily concerned with species and subspecies of living animals and plants

145
Q

What is an ecosystem?

A
  • A community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system
  • These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flow
146
Q

keystone species

A

–a species whose effect on the structure of a biological community is well out of proportion to its relative biomass. The addition or the removal of a keystone species has a large effect on the richness and relative abundance of many other species

147
Q

indicator species

A

is a species indicative of particular conditions in a system and used as a surrogate measure for other species or particular condition

148
Q

umbrella species

A

is a species that, if flourishing, would protect other species in the biological community because of its demand for large expanses of habitat

149
Q

flagship species

A

is a species that elicits emotional feelings from individuals leading to a potential for individuals to be more passionate about conservation of that species habitat or perhaps even contribute financially

150
Q

vulnerable species

A

is a species that is particularly susceptible to extinction

151
Q

economically or culturally important species

A

is a species that has positive or negative consequences for the local, regional or national economy

152
Q

minimum viable population (MVP)

A

is the smallest spatially discrete population having a certain probability (i.e. 99%) of remaining viable (or extant –not going extinct) for a certain period of time (i.e. 1000 years)

153
Q

metapopulation

A

is a regional population consisting of a number of spatially discrete populations distributed among habitat fragments, connected by dispersal

154
Q

population viability analysis (PVA)

A

is a species-specific method of risk assessment traditionally defined as the process that determines the probability that a population will go extinct within a given number of years

155
Q

disturbance

A

“A disturbance is any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts the ecosystem, community, or structure and changes resources, substrate availability or the physical environment.” -White and Pickett (1985)

  • Short term physical or biological events that significantly alter ecosystems
  • Natural and important part of the environment
156
Q

types of disturbance

A
  • Fire
  • Wind
  • Flooding
  • Landslides/avalanches
  • Volcanic activity
  • Pathogens
  • Marine disturbances
157
Q

succession

A

Term used to describe the physical and biological changes that occur after a disturbance Two main type

158
Q

primary succession

A

When plants and animals colonize a previously uninhabited habitat

159
Q

secondary succession

A

When an ecosystem recovers from a disturbance

160
Q

seral stages

A

progress of succession is divided into stages. For plants it is called seral stages

161
Q

natural fire ignition source and requirements

A

lightning. Requirements:
- Dry conditions
- High winds
- High air temperatures
- Low air and soil humidity

162
Q

adaptations to fire

A

Fire Resistant Bark •Deep Root Systems •Epicormic Sprouting •Seed Dormancy •Serotinous Cone

163
Q

benefits of fire

A
  • Recycling nutrients of living and dead biomass
  • Clears away leaf little and dead standing trees
  • New growth provides food for herbivores
  • Insects use burnt trees as microenvironments
164
Q

catastrophic winds

A

Wind speed of over 200 km/h

-Hurricanes and Tornadoes

165
Q

wind micro blasts

A

Speeds can reach 400 km per hour

-Cause small linear patches of intense tree mortal

166
Q

flooding

A
  • Primarily affects low areas and river bottom forests near bodies of water
  • controls the geographic distribution of plant species
167
Q

river and lake flooding

A
  • Caused by high amounts of precipitation and snowmelt

- As well as river ice blocking water passages

168
Q

flash flooding

A
  • Rapid flooding of a low-lying area due to storms producing large amounts of water, which overflows water bodies
  • More prevalent in mountainous and semi-arid regions
169
Q

coastal floods

A

Storm surges flooding the coastline in sea waters

170
Q

flood benefits

A
  • Riparian forests that consist of willows and sedges thrive in areas that are often flooded. These trees add to the stability of the forest
  • Seeds are transported via flood water allowing forests to spread their rang
171
Q

geographical range/distribution

A

geographical area in which a species lives

-determined by presence of suitable environmental conditions & resources

172
Q

habitat patch

A

-an area of homogeneous environmental conditions -contains suitable conditions and resources needed to sustain a population

173
Q

landscape mosaic

A

includes the spatial characteristics of all the natural and human-created aspects of the environment

174
Q

landscape matrix

A

includes is the “background ecological system” of a landscape with a high degree of connectivity

175
Q

metapopulation

A

collection of local populations interacting within the geographical range (movement of individuals

176
Q

dispersal

A

movement of individuals away from place of birth or areas of high population density (-due to limited resources, etc)

177
Q

emigration

A

movement of individuals out of a population

178
Q

immigration

A

movement of individuals into a population

179
Q

sink population

A

death rates exceed birth rates and immigration exceeds emigration -Sinkhabitats, bydefinition, cannot persist without immigration

180
Q

source population

A

birth rates exceed death rates and emigration exceeds immigration -sources are net exporters of individual

181
Q

patterns of dispersion

A

spacing of individuals with respect to one another

182
Q

pattern of dispersion: clumped

A

in discrete groups ex) young staying with parents, flocking, etc

183
Q

pattern of dispersion: even

A

regularly/uniformly spaced. ex) plants competing for light

184
Q

pattern of dispersion: random

A

without regard to other. Rarely occurs

185
Q

movement corridors

A

are linear strips of ecosystems intended to facilitate the movement of species between larger landscape patches

186
Q

natal dispersal

A

is largely an innate behavior that is expressed in young individuals that leave their site of birth and move in search of a mate and suitable unoccupied breeding habit

187
Q

density-dependent dispersal

A

is the movement from one area of high density and intraspecific competition to areas of lower density and lower competition levels

188
Q

3 factors that threaten species persistence

A
  1. habitat loss
  2. habitat fragmentation
  3. matrix quality
189
Q

perforation

A

a type of habitat fragmentation in which human uses alter small patches within an area of natural vegetation

190
Q

internal fragmentation

A

a type of habitat fragmentation in which linear corridors (roads, hydro lines etc) dissect an area

191
Q

species-area relationship

A

states that the number of species increases as area of an ecosystem increases

192
Q

area-sensitive species

A

are species that require a large area to survive and reproduce –may be the result of having a restricted ecological niche
ex) mountain lions dependent upon elk

193
Q

edge effect

A

some species are negatively affected near habitat edges –not all species evolved with edge –many species require large areas of unfragmented habitats

194
Q

edge-sensitive species

A

a species whose fitness is reduced near habitat edges

195
Q

abiotic effects

A

sharp gradients across edges in temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, and moisture

196
Q

biotic effects

A

some species do better with edge than other –edge-generalist species can exert biotic effects on other species

197
Q

human effects

A

human activities along edges such as pets, weapons, and disturbance

198
Q

alpha species richness

A

is the number of species within small areas of fairly uniform habitat (example: the number of song birds or herbaceous plants species in a coniferous forest stand)

199
Q

gamma species richness

A

is the number of species within a region i.e. the cumulative number of species observed in all habitats within a region (example: the number of song birds or herbaceous plant species in the boreal forest of Manitoba)

200
Q

beta richness

A

is the amount of change or turnover in species i.e. species gained and lost in going from one habitat to the next (the species difference between the two habitats). A high beta richness means that different habitats are supporting very different suites of species and therefore the cumulative number of species is higher

201
Q

predation

A

when one organism consumes another

202
Q

stenophagous

A

predators with a narrow range of prey species

  • specialist species
    ex) koala, checkerspot butterfly
203
Q

Euryphagous

A
  • many prey species as a food source

- generalist species

204
Q

fine-grained

A
  • Animals with large ranges and a broad diet

- Forging is from an array of fine-scale environments within their range

205
Q

coarse-grained

A
  • Animals with a small range and a restricted diet

- Forging is coarsely divided b/w the limited areas that they can live in and can’t live in

206
Q

optimal foraging theory

A

Benefits predators to focus on prey species that provide the highest ratio of food energy relative to the energy required for foraging

207
Q

Lotka-VolterraModel

A

Model produces a set of sinusoidal curves in which the curve of the prey population leads the rises and declines of the predator population

208
Q

competetion

A
  • Rivalry for supremacy
  • Occurs between species in an area
  • Interspecific & Intra specific competition
209
Q

interspecific competition

A

Interactions between individual of two of more species

-different species

210
Q

intraspecific competition

A

interaction between individuals of the same species

-same species

211
Q

resource exploitation competition

A
  • Indirect contact
  • Cheetah and lions competing for the same food sources (antelope)
  • One specie denies another access to a resource simply by consuming it first
212
Q

interference competition (physical or chemical) allelopathy

A
  • Direct contact

- One specie prevents foraging, survival, and reproduction of the other species

213
Q

Mutualism

A

Interaction presents benefits to both species

214
Q

Commensalism

A

Interaction benefits one species while having no impact on the other

215
Q

Parasitism

A

Only one species benefits at the expense of the other

216
Q

Müellerian mimicry

A

When two poisonous or unpalatable species share the same coloring or shape

217
Q

batesian mimicry

A

When a species that is not poisonous or unpalatable mimics the coloring or shape of a poisonous or unpalatable species

218
Q

Fundamental Niche

A

The broad niche of a species in the absence of competition

219
Q

Realized Niche

A

the more restricted niche of a species resulting from competition

220
Q

Competitive Exclusion Principle

A

No two species should have completely overlapping niches

221
Q

philopatric behaviour

A

is when an animal returns to the same general area of their birth or where they give birth to offspring for a number of seasons

222
Q

ontogeny

A

The development of a single organism in the course of its life history

223
Q

Anthropocene

A

A name for the current geological approach in recognition of human impacts on the natural environment

224
Q

evolution

A

a process by which species develop
from earlier forms, as an explanation of their
origins.

225
Q

adaptive radiation

A

The evolutionary radiation
of a group, based on a novel set of characteristics,
that allows it to adapt to a wide range of ways of
life.

226
Q

zonation

A

distribution in zones, esp. (Ecol.) of
plants into zones characterized by the dominant
species

227
Q

T or F
New Zealand was a land without browsing
mammals.

A

true

228
Q

only 2 terrestrial mammals in New Zealand were…

A

bats

229
Q

unique things about kiwi bird

A
  • has a keen sense of smell
  • bones contain marrow not air sacks
  • nostrils at the tip of its beak
  • has 4 toes
  • eye sockets are separated by large nasal cavities (like mammals)
  • nocturnal with poor vision
230
Q

Tuatara

A
  • named the “living fossil”
  • ancestry is 200 million years old
  • no evidence about its evolution
  • 3rd eye in the centre of its head
231
Q

absence of mammalian predators caused what in New Zealand

A

-unusually high numbers of birds that are poor flyers or cannot fly at all

232
Q

First Human Influx in New Zealand

A

-occurred in the 12th century
-Maori from Polynesia about 800 years ago
to New Zealand
-brought the rat and Maori dog

233
Q

The Second Human Influx in NZ

1769 -1840

A
  • Captain James Cook landed in New Zealand
  • claimed it on behalf of the British Crown.
  • brought rats and pigs
234
Q

The Third Human Influx in NZ

1841 -1900

A

-brought 100 bird species and 25 mammal
species
-brought for reasons of sport, commerce
and to remind the settlers of home in Britain

235
Q

NZ contains how much of the world’s endangered species?

A

11%

236
Q

New Zealand’s altitudinal zones

A

-characterized as abrupt where dark green forest
gives way to tawny grassland
-due to this ‘abruptness’ often sharp ecological boundaries exist

237
Q

Types of Alpine Vegetation

A
  • 4 types
  • grassland vegetation
  • wetland vegetation
  • rock plant communities
  • shrubs and flowering plants
  • most alpine species occur nowhere else
238
Q

adaptive features of alpine plants

A

-flowers are often large
-leaves are wooly to help trap heat
-optimum rates for photosynthesis and respiration are
at lower temperatures t
-long-lived
-Some produce soluble carbohydrates
-Flower budding are typically formed in the proceeding
summer
-ABSENCE OF COLOUR IS A DOMINANT FEATURE

239
Q

environmental ethics

A
  • considered a luxury

- often involves the human condition and moral choices

240
Q

environmental ethics definition

A

involves human moral attitudes toward the environment.

241
Q

Bronze Age

A

-seismic shift occurred in Britain with the arrival of agriculture
-first time power was obtained through the use of
commodities (livestock and crops)
-permanent settlements based on agriculture emerged
-Laws were made and taxes imposed and trade expanded

242
Q

‘age of enlightenment’

A

-humanism, a belief humans benefit without
knowledge of religion or a spiritual connection to
something greater than themselves.

243
Q

Agricultural Issues

A
  • 1 in 5 people lack access to clean drinking water
  • 2 in 5 people globally lack clean sanitation
  • Where for survival, an individual needs at minimum 5 litres a day
  • Those in the U.S.A. use on average 578 litres per day
  • trying to grow plants where they don’t naturally grow
  • 51% of greenhouse gases are produced by livestock
244
Q

Future of Agriculture

A

-Vertical farming in multi-story buildings in cities close to markets are being explored as a future option.

245
Q

Conservation Biogeography

A
  • Based on a thorough understanding of the principles of ecology
  • Must integrate ecology with social, political, and economic systems
  • Focus is generally on species in perial
246
Q

Island Biogeography

A
  1. Species richness increases with island size

2. Species richness decreases with distance from (continental) sources

247
Q

Species richness on islands

A

immigration = extinction

-if immigration or extinction rates change than equilibrium will reassert itself

248
Q

Species richness island distance from continent

A

large near island > large far island
large far island = small near island
small near island > small far island

249
Q

Single Large reserves could be designed

A
  • to reduce extinction rates
  • to accommodate large viable populations
  • to minimize fragmentation
  • to minimize edge effects
  • to protect species that are dependent on contiguous habitat
250
Q

Several Small reserves could be designed

A
  • more habitat diversity
  • complementarity principle (minimum overlap of species)
  • facilitate dispersal distances of target species
  • higher biodiversity
  • buffer against stochastic extinction events e.g. fire, flood, pathogens
251
Q

Peregrine Conservation Biogeography in Manitoba

A

-associated with conserving the breeding distribution of the species within the Province by means of a Peregrine Recovery Plan and Strategy

252
Q

Peregrine MB Plan

A
  • viable captive population
  • develop methods to release onto the landscape
  • expand current breeding population beyond urban settings
253
Q

Peregrine Recovery

A
  • adaptable nature helped the recovery
  • ability to bred in a domestic environment
  • falconry methods contributed towards release methods
  • urban nesters helped with their recovery
254
Q

K-selected species

A
  • Large in body size
  • Slow maturing with delayed sexual development
  • Long lived with high survival rates
  • Low rate of production
  • Small population size
  • Stable population through time if the environment does not drastically change
255
Q

R-selected species

A
  • small in body size
  • rapidly developing
  • sexually mature in one year or less
  • short lived
  • highly reproductive

Biogeography (1 decks)

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