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PSYCH 1001 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is psychology

A

The science that studies behaviour and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it.
The profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of the science to practical problems.
Both a natural science and a social science.

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2
Q

Research vs applied psychology

A

Research: psychologists who are studying people to try and determine basic human characteristics (influences on behaviour)

Applied: therapists and other psychologists who are using the knowledge gained through research to make a difference in the real world.

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3
Q

Animism

A

The doctrine of spiritual beings.
The belief that animals, people, and inanimate objects and all inhabited by spirits.

The early theory of animism is not much apogee a valid psychological approach as it cannot be tested

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4
Q

Dualism

A

Mind and body are two separate categories (two distinct entities)
Body functions like a machine
Mind is not made of ordinary matter

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5
Q

Rene descartes

A

Early dualist

Animals and humans are a part of the natural world, therefore their behaviours are controlled by natural causes

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6
Q

Rationalism

A

The pursuit of truth through reason

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7
Q

Empiricism

A

Pursuit of truth through observation and experience

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8
Q

Materialism

A

Reality can only be understood by examining the physical world

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9
Q

Structuralism

A

Examining the structure of the mind (ideas, sensations)

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10
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

Structuralist
Tried to experimentally confirm his hypothesis that conscious mental life can be broken down into fundamental elements which then form more complex mental structures

Turned psychology into the the scientific study of conscious experience; kept psychology focused squarely on the mind

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11
Q

Functionalism

A

Stresses the biological significance (function) of natural processes, including behaviours.
Emphasizes observable behaviours and physical structures and attempts to establish their usefulness with respect to survival and reproductive success.

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12
Q

Behaviourism

A

Focuses solely upon observable behaviours and the relationship between the environment and behaviours.

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13
Q

Areas of modern applied psychology and what they do

A

Clinical: which therapeutic technique will benefit a patient with a specific mental illness

Health: how psychological factors relate to physical health

Educational: how people learn and best ways to teach them

Industrial-organizational: what interventions will improve productivity and job satisfaction

Engineering: what features will facilitate the usability of a computer

Forensic: how do we improve an eyewitnesses ability to identify the correct subject

Social: interpersonal behaviour and social forces

Developmental: human development

Experimental: focuses on traditional core topics

Personality: factors that shape personality

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14
Q

Psychoanalytic psychology

A

Unconscious determinants of behaviour.

Unconscious motives and experiences in early childhood govern personality and mental disorders

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15
Q

Humanism

A

A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and potential for personal growth.
People are not pawns of their animal heritage or environmental circumstances.
People have a basic need to continue to evolve as human beings and to fulfil their potential.

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16
Q

Cognitive psychology

A

Thoughts, mental processes.

Human behaviour cannot be fully understood without examining how people acquire, store and process information.

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17
Q

Behavioural neuroscience

A

Psychological, genetic, and neural bases of behaviour in humans and animals.
An organisms functioning can be explained in terms of the brain structures and bio-chemical processes that underlie behaviour

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18
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A

Evolutionary bases of behaviour in humans and animals.
Behaviour patterns have evolved to solve adaptive problems; natural selection favours behaviours that enhance reproductive success

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19
Q

Clinical psychology

A

Branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders

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20
Q

William James

A

Functionalist.

Argued that consciousness consists of a continuous flow of thoughts, which he called the stream of consciousness.

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21
Q

John Watson

A

Behaviourist.
Proposed that psychologists abandon the study of consciousness and focus solely on behaviours they could observe directly.

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22
Q

Sigmund Freud

A

His idea of the unconscious, which contains thoughts, memories, desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but still have an influence on behaviour.
His psychoanalytic theory attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behaviour.

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23
Q

B. F. Skinner

A

Fundamental principle of behaviour: organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes, and tend not to repeat responses that lead to neutral or negative outcomes.
With this he showed he could control behaviour by manipulating the outcomes of responses.
Concluded that free will is an illusion.

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24
Q

Carl Rodgers

A

Humanist.
Argued that behaviour is governed by the individual’s sense of self (self concept).
Emphasized the focus on the human drive for personal growth and fulfilling their potential.

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25
Q

Donald Hebb

A

Argued that the locus of behaviour should be sought in the brain. Introduced the concept of cell assemblies, which facilitate behaviour

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26
Q

Martin Seligman

A

Realized psychology was too negative in its approach and launched an initiative called positive psychology.

27
Q

Positive psychology

A

Uses theory and research to better understand the positive aspects of human existence, rather than pathology, weakness, damage, and suffering.

28
Q

7 key themes

A
  1. Psychology is empirical: knowledge should be acquired through observation.
  2. Psychology is theoretically diverse: no single theory can explain everything that is known about behaviour.
  3. Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context: interconnections exist between what happens in psychology and in society.
  4. Behaviour is determined by multiple causes: governed by a complex network of interacting factors.
  5. Behaviour is shaped by cultural heritage
  6. Heredity and environment jointly influence behaviour: the answer to nature vs nurture is both.
  7. Peoples experience of the world is subjective: people tend to see what they want or expect to see.
29
Q

Idiographic vs nomothetic research

A

Idiographic: focuses on a single subject
Nomothetic: statistical comparison of data from groups of participants

30
Q

3 types of scientific research

A

Naturalistic observations: includes case studies and laboratory observations

Correlational studies: (observation and measurement without manipulation) usually questionnaires

Experimental research: manipulating a variable and measuring the impact of that manipulation on another variable.

31
Q

What is the scientific method

A
  1. Identify the problem (hypothesis)
  2. Design a study
  3. Preform a study
  4. Examine the data
  5. Communicate the results
32
Q

Theory

A

A set of statements designed to explain a set of results and is more encompassing than a hypothesis (vague, broad)

33
Q

Hypothesis

A

A statement of what you think should happen in your experiment (derived from the theory, more specific and testable)

34
Q

Darley and Lataines diffusion of responsibility study

A

They found that in case of an emergency, when people believe there are other people around, they are less likely or slower to help a victim because they believe someone else will take responsibility.

35
Q

Variables

A

Something that can vary that we can measure.
Can refer to traits that very from one person to the next (ex height)
Can refer to individual characteristics that can fluctuate (ex emotions)

36
Q

Independent vs dependent variables

A

Independent: the variable that is actively manipulated by the researcher

Dependent: the variable that is measured, dependent upon the independent variable

37
Q

Operational definition

A

When designing a study we need to clearly define the variables. We also need to clearly define how we are going to measure the variables

38
Q

Validity

A

If a test accurately measures what it was designed to measure, we can say that the test is valid.

39
Q

Reliability

A

The test needs to be able to consistently measure the variable it’s supposed to be measuring.
If a test is not reliable, it can’t be valid. However, a test could be reliable but not valid.

40
Q

Experimental vs control group

A

Experimental: participants who are exposed to some manipulation (independent variable is manipulated)

Control: comparison group (independent variable is not manipulated)

41
Q

Random assignment

A

Each participant has an equally likely chance of being assigned to any of the groups in the study

42
Q

Confounding of variables

A

Without careful control of the experiment situation, we could potentially end up with other variables that are accidentally different between our experimental conditions (ex. The room temperatures might be different)

If the results are confounded, we have no way of knowing if the effect on the DV is due to the manipulation of the IV or if it’s caused by the confounding variable.

43
Q

Counterbalancing

A

Randomizing the order of questionnaires to control for the confounding variable of “order”

44
Q

Correlational vs experimental studies

A

Correlational: cannot infer causation, can only state that there is a relationship between the variables of interest. May be due to a third unknown variable.

Experimental: can infer a causal relationship between the two variables of interest. May be due to a third unknown variable.

45
Q

Generalization

A

Can you apply your results to the population from which you took your sample? Can you infer results you find in your sample data are also true for the population?

46
Q

Descriptive vs inferential statistics

A

Descriptive: used to summarize and describe the data collected in the study. (Can describe the centre of data, range of data, variability, group differences/similarities, relations between variables)

Inferential: based on the numbers collected in the sample. Looking to determine if the pattern we find in the sample data can be generalized to the population

47
Q

Statistical significance

A

Determined by the outcome of statistical analyses preformed on the data from a study.
Is the claim that an observed relation or difference between two variables is probably not due to chance.

48
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

A number used to describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
We use the symbol “r” to denote the correlation between two variables.
The value of r can vary from -1 to +1
When there is no relation r=0
When there is perfect relation r=-1 or r=1
The positive or negative sign denotes the direction of the relation between the two variables.

49
Q

The goals of science

A

Measurement and description
Understanding and prediction
Application and control

50
Q

Advantages of the scientific approach

A

Clarity and precision

Relative intolerance of error

51
Q

Field experiments

A

Studies that use settings that are very much like real life. If fact, many occur in the context of everyday life and events.
Results are Moore generalizable and applicable to everyday life compared to artificial lab experiments.

52
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

A researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the subjects. Behaviour is allowed to unfold naturally in its natural environment.
Can be used to study animal behaviour
A problem is that reactivity occurs when a participants behaviour is altered by the presence of the observer.

53
Q

Case studies

A

An in-depth investigation of an individual participant or group of participants.
Clinical psychologists who diagnose and treat psychological problems often do case studies.
A problem is that case studies can be highly subjective.

54
Q

Surveys

A

Researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants behaviour. Often used to obtain information on aspects of behaviour that are hard to observe directly, and make it easy to collect data on attitudes and opinions.
Problem is that self reported data can be unreliable

55
Q

Central tendency

A

What constitutes a typical or average score.
Median: score that falls in the middle)
Mean: average of the scores)
Mode: most frequent score)

56
Q

Variability

A

How much the scores in data vary from each other and from the mean.

57
Q

Correlation

A

Exists when two variables are related to each other.

58
Q

Potential flaws in psychological research

A

Sampling bias: when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.
Placebo effects: when participants expectations lead them to experience some change, even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.
Distortions in self-report data: social desirability bias is a tendency to socially approved answers. A response set is a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way.
Experimenter bias: when the researchers expectations about the study influence the results. This can be neutralized by the double blind procedure.

59
Q

Ethical considerations for conducting research

A

Respect for the dignity of persons
Responsible caring
Integrity in relationships
Responsibility to society

60
Q

Attribution theory

A

A theory of motivation.
One way of looking at why people engage in motivated behaviour by examining how the person explains events/behaviours of self/others

61
Q

Weiner’s dimensions for classifying ascriptions

A

Locus of causality (internal vs external)
Stability over time (stable vs unstable)
Controllability (controllable vs uncontrollable)
Globality across situations (global vs specific)
Intentionality (intentional vs unintentional)

62
Q

Attribution theory and motivation

A

Expectancy x value = motivation

Our motivation to engage in this behaviour in a future similar circumstance is influenced by: expectancy of repetition (or attainment) and value of future outcomes.

63
Q

Attributional retraining

A

A therapeutic technique where students are taught to provide certain causal ascriptions for academic success and failure, and to avoid other causal ascriptions.
Has demonstrated considerable promise for increasing students motivation and achievement

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