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CHEM 181 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is significant about pomegranates?

A

• Been on earth since the biblical times
• Contains natural aromatase inhibitors: makes things multiply less quickly
- In the lab, the multiplication of cultured breast cancer cells is reduced when bathed in pomegranate juice
- We don’t know if this has an effect on humans, but advertisers blow this information out of proportion

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2
Q

What is beta carotene?

A

An antioxidant

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3
Q

What is significant about apricot seeds?

A

They contain laetrile, which was advertised as a cancer remedy

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4
Q

What do flax seeds contain?

A
  • omega-3 fats
  • lignans
  • fiber (soluble and insoluble)
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5
Q

What are omega-3 fats?

A
  • Linked with reduction of risk of cardiac problems

- Not as biologically active as in fish

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6
Q

What are lignans?

A
  • They have beneficial estrogen-like properties

- Anything that has those properties is controversial, as it depends on the dosage

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7
Q

What is fiber?

A

Indigestible component of foods, passes through to the colon

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8
Q

What is the risk of breast cancer is reduced by?

A

phytoestrogen intake but only in premenopausal overweight women

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9
Q

What is significant about eggs?

A
  • Linked with heart disease because the yolk contains lots of cholesterol, but this is controversial
  • There was a study in China suggesting the opposite
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10
Q

What’s in blood cholesterol?

A

Part dietary cholesterol, but mostly dietary saturated fats, trans fats and sugar

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11
Q

What is significant about donuts?

A

• Made of many trans fats because they’re stable; the oil doesn’t break down easily
- Raises levels of cholesterol

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12
Q

What is oat bran?

A

• Said to have lowered cholesterol levels; eaten by horses
• Contains beta glucan, a soluble fiber, which helps with reducing blood cholesterol
- You have to eat 3 grams of beta glucan a day = a cup of cooked oat bran = 3-5 muffins = 1.5 cups of oatmeal

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13
Q

What is significant about the preservatives in bread?

A

• If it didn’t have preservatives in it, it would go bad very quickly
- The preservative is called calcium propionate
• Baguettes don’t have preservatives, so a lot of Frenchmen carry them under their arms (a natural preservative)

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14
Q

What is resveratrol?

A

Found in wine and can have an effect in the reduction of risk of heart disease

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15
Q

What is a carcinogen?

A

Capable of causing cancer, found in alcohol

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16
Q

What is significant about beyond meat?

A

• Beyond meat has a much higher sodium content

  • In terms of nutrition, there is no superiority
  • Environmentally, beyond meat is better
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17
Q

What is significant about fruit juice?

A

It has a lot of sugar, but you also get nutrients from it

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18
Q

What is produced when we grill or charcoal something?

A

Polycyclic hydrocarbons and advanced glycation end products

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19
Q

Why are processed meats bad for you?

A

Consuming an average of 60 grams of processed meat a day increases the risk of developing colorectal cancer by 50%

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20
Q

What is used to make packaging oil proof?

A

We use polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) so it doesn’t seep into the food

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21
Q

How can calcium be properly absorbed?

A

It has to have vitamin D

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22
Q

Every __ seconds, someone dies from hunger

A

3.6 seconds

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23
Q

What is communal reinforcement?

A

the process by which a claim becomes a strong belief, through repeated assertion by members of a community

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24
Q

How is a theory useful?

A

• A theory can be useful to predict what will happen in the future
- To overcome a theory, you need to make a hypothesis about a certain part of the theory

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25
Q

What is simultaneous discovery?

A

Discovery of the same thing in different places

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26
Q

What was the first peer-reviewed journal?

A

the journal of the chemical society (UK)

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27
Q

What is a full paper?

A

a complete description of research findings

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28
Q

What are notes?

A

a short description of current research findings that are considered less urgent or important

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29
Q

What are communications?

A

a short description of important current research findings

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30
Q

What is the peer review process?

A
  • Starts with a researcher that has to contend with an editor
  • Most researchers don’t get their work published in a journal of choice, the accept pile is slim
  • You have to contend with one or more referees, who judge the work and edit quickly
  • Referee sends feedback to editor, who sends those to the researcher
  • Then a decision is made by the editor (influenced by referee)
  • If it is not accepted, the paper is sent to another journal, which isn’t very good for the researcher’s reputation
  • The referee’s identity does not become known by the researcher
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31
Q

How did publications use to be done?

A

by writing them on punch cards, which eventually made their way to the library

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32
Q

What is methods reproducibility?

A

you have to spell out exactly what you used and how you did the experiment

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33
Q

What is results producibility?

A

can someone else redo the experiment and get the same results?

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34
Q

What is robustness and generalizability?

A

converging lines of evidence

- We don’t value it very much; we value numbers more (ex: money)

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35
Q

What is the reason behind half the retractions in publications?

A

errors and lack of reproducibility

4 out of 10 000 papers are retracted

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36
Q

What are observational (epidemiological) studies?

A

studies where the assignment of subjects is not controlled by the investigator

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37
Q

What are case control studies?

A

compare people with a specific condition (case) to other people who are otherwise similar except for that condition (control)

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38
Q

What are vitamins?

A

nutrients needed in small amounts to prevent deficiency diseases
- there are 13

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39
Q

Which vitamins are fat soluble?

A

A, D, E, K

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40
Q

Which vitamins are water soluble?

A

B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12

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41
Q

Why is bone broth not capable of sustaining life?

A

it is low in vitamins

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42
Q

What is beri beri?

A

a disease caused by a nutritional deficiency and a change in diet form brown rice to white rice

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43
Q

Who coined the term for “vitamin” for “vital amines”?

A

Casimir Funk

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44
Q

Who was asked to undertake an investigation of a disease called pellagra?

A

Joseph Goldberger

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45
Q

Explain the significance of the extraction of niacin (vitamin B3) from food

A
  • Helped with preventing pellagra (vitamin B3 deficiency)
  • Can be made in the body from tryptophan
  • Niacin reduces cholesterol; main goal is to lower LDL (bad) cholesterol
  • Statins do this much better than niacin does, but niacin has more of the advantage of raising HDL (good) cholesterol
  • It also lowers triglycerides, fats in the blood that can increase the risk of heart disease
  • But dose needed is high and causes facial flushing
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46
Q

What are B vitamins involved in?

A

• B vitamins are involved in energy production by the body but are not “pep” pills
- Energy supplements usually contain B vitamins but this is just marketing

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47
Q

What is vitamin B6 deficiency?

A
  • Weakness, sleeplessness, peripheral neuropathy, personality changes, dermatitis, red tongue
  • Very high doses with cause some neuropathies
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48
Q

What is vitamin B12?

A
  • Involved in metabolism and formation of red blood cells and maintaining the CNS
  • We are not capable of synthesizing it; only bacteria
  • Contains cyanide
  • We need vitamin B12 from an outside source (ex: eating animal products, no plants)
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49
Q

What increases vitamin B12 deficiency?

A

Vegan diet, Crohn’s disease, and celiac disease increase risk of B12 deficiency
- So they should supplement it

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50
Q

Poor vitamin B12 absorption may occur in those who:

A
  • use alcohol excessively
  • take antibiotics
  • use stomach-acid controlling drugs (including H-2 blockers and proton pump inhibitors)
  • take metformin to treat type 2 diabetes
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51
Q

What is pernicious anemia?

A

type of vitamin B12 deficiency caused by lack of intrinsic factor produced by the stomach

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52
Q

What are the most common side effects of vitamin B12 deficiency?

A

Weakness, tingling, numbness, smooth red tongue, palpitations, shortness of breath, depression, memory loss

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53
Q

Explain the controversy around folic acid

A
  • During pregnancy, folic acid can reduce the risk of malformations in the baby (when the spine doesn’t close properly –> neural tube defects)
  • In 1947, researchers discovered that the administration of folic acid made leukemia worse, and that a diet deficient in folic acid could, conversely, produce improvement
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54
Q

What is a precursor of vitamin A?

A

Beta-carotene

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55
Q

What is vitamin A good for?

A
  • Good for bone growth, reproduction, and immune system health
  • Helps the skin and mucous membranes repel bacteria and viruses more effectively
  • Essential to vision, and may slow declining retinal function in people with retinitis pigmentosa
  • Can treat certain skin diseases
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56
Q

Where is vitamin A found?

A

found in animal foods (ex: liver)

- We don’t need to eat animal foods; we can eat beta-carotene found in plant products

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57
Q

Who does vitamin A deficiency affect?

A

estimated to affect approximately one third of children under the age of 5 around the world

  • Claims the lives of ~670 000 children under 5 annually
  • ~250 000 – 500 000 children in developing countries become blind each year
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58
Q

What are the solution to vitamin A deficiency?

A

• Golden rice: Genes from daffodil and bacteria code for an enzyme that will produce beta carotene in the rice
• Golden potato: Developed same way as golden rice, yet not on the market yet
- It’s very difficult for people in developing countries to take pills, so it’s a better approach to improve the foods that they are already eating

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59
Q

Why shouldn’t smokers take beta-carotene supplements?

A

It has been shown to increase the risk of lung cancer

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60
Q

Is it possible to overdose on vitamin A?

A

YES

Ex: you turn orange (beta carotene overdose) polar bear liver (vitamin A overdose)

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61
Q

What is vitamin D capable of preventing?

A

• Capable of preventing a disease called rickets (prevalent in the industrial revolution, when children had to work in mines)

  • Causes weak bones
  • Cod liver oil was given to children as a supplement of vitamin D
  • Milk products are supplemented for vitamin D
  • MAY reduce falls among the elderly
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62
Q

Explain the relationship between sunlight and vitamin D

A

Sunlight can unleash a cascade of reactions to form vitamin D

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63
Q

What helps with absorption of vitamin D?

A

Calcium

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64
Q

What is vitamin E?

A

A mix of 8 different compounds of tocopherol and tocotrienol

- found in many plants, so deficiency is uncommon

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65
Q

What does vitamin E do?

A

• Necessary for structural and functional maintenance of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

  • Assists in the formation of red blood cells and helps to maintain stores of vitamins A and K, iron and selenium
  • May have a positive effect on immune health, protect against oxidative damage that can lead to heart disease, have preventative effects against cancer, help relieve symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease, and may help prevent some diabetes-related damage, particularly to the eyes
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66
Q

What is the daily value of vitamin E?

A

• Daily value of vitamin E is 30 IU or 20 milligrams of alpha tocopherol
- Supplements usually contain 400 IU or 133 milligrams

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67
Q

What is significant about vitamin E and heart disease?

A

• No significant effect has been noted for heart disease or cancer
- May increase the risk of heart failure

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68
Q

What is vitamin K?

A

A group of structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamins the human body requires for synthesis of certain proteins that are prerequisites for blood coagulation and which the body also needs for controlling binding of calcium in bones and other tissues

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69
Q

What is prothrombin?

A

A protein involved in blood clotting and is activated with the aid of vitamin K

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70
Q

What is osteocalcin?

A

A protein that plays a major role in incorporating calcium into bones

  • Osteoporotic fractures have been linked with low blood levels of vitamin K
  • If osteocalcin is not properly activated by vitamin K, the calcium that it should be delivering to the bones ends up floating around the bloodstream and contributes to calcification, or hardening of the arteries
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71
Q

What is there daily recommended dose for vitamin K?

A

• You need 2-3 micrograms a day; safe at larger doses, even up to 1000 micrograms
- There is a concern for anyone taking blood thinners (ex: coumadin), as vitamin K would counteract its effects

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72
Q

What is associated with vitamin C deficiency?

A

Scurvy (plague of sailors)

- Gums bleed, sores all over the body, can result in death

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73
Q

Who is the father of vitamin C?

A

James Lind

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74
Q

What does vitamin C do?

A
  • It increases the absorption of iron

- Most animals can make their own

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75
Q

Explain the discovery of vitamin C

A

• It wasn’t until 1795 that the British navy began to provide a daily supply of lime or lemon juice to all its men
- It took 175 between the discovery of citrus fruit as a cure for scurvy and the discovery that vitamin C is the primary component of citrus fruit
• In the 1930s, albert Szent-Gyorgyi isolated the “antiscorbutic factor” in 1927
- After its molecular structure was determined by Norman Haworth in 1933 it was named “ascorbic acid”

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76
Q

True or false: the body cannot produce most vitamins

A

True

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77
Q

What makes gypsum?

A

Ca + SO4

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78
Q

What makes Epsom salts?

A

Mg + SO4

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79
Q

What decomposes into limestone?

A

Ca + HCO3

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80
Q

What makes dolomite?

A
  • Magnesium and calcium pills
  • Does not contain much iron
  • Can have dangerous trace elements, but it depends on the dose
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81
Q

What is significant about sodium and chloride?

A

Sodium and chloride are both highly toxic substances individually, but together they make a household item  TABLE SALT
- ~40% of it is sodium, ~2.4g or twice recommended intake
- Too much salt can result in hypertension
Normal: 120/80
High: >140/>90

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82
Q

What is significant sodium in our diet?

A

It is sodium that has lost an electron

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83
Q

Explain the reaction of elemental sodium

A
  • Elemental sodium reacts with water

- Elemental hydrogen is produced by this reaction

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84
Q

What is significant about KBr?

A
  • K+ Br-
  • crystalline solid
  • high melting point
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85
Q

What are some well-ionized substances?

A

Lemon juice, salt, V8 juice, and soya sauce

  • Vinegar is not
  • Soya sauce has the strongest affect due to its sodium content
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86
Q

What is significant about lemon juice’s salt content?

A

Even though lemon juice doesn’t have salt in the label, it contains potassium and other kinds of salts

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87
Q

What is the most prevalent mineral in our diet?

A

Calcium

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88
Q

What is significant about potassium?

A
  • Same charge as an ion, located just below sodium
  • It is a salt, but it’s not the conventional one (KCl: “no salt”)
  • Potatoes have 50% more potassium per gram than bananas
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89
Q

Why does potassium have a bigger size than sodium?

A
  • Potassium has a bigger spherical size

- Has to do with electrolyte concentration and how they transport substances around

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90
Q

What is iodine?

A

• A solid- pretty high vapour pressure, it doesn’t melt
• As you heat it, purple fumes are given off (elemental iodine)
• Table salt and sea salt are potential sources of iodine
- Needed by the thyroid gland for fat metabolism

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91
Q

What does iodine deficiency cause?

A

GOITER

  • Symptoms: enlarged neck, because thyroid is expanding to look for more iodine
  • Theodore Kocher: thyroid work
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92
Q

How many grams of heme do we need per day?

A

• 2-4 grams in the body associated with heme

- We need 10-20 mg per day

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93
Q

What is linked with iron deficiency?

A

Anemia

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94
Q

What is hemochromatosis?

A
  • It is genetic
  • Body absorbs abnormal amounts of iron
  • Excess iron stored in heart, liver pancreas, and joints
  • Necessary in heme (in the middle of heme molecule) because it transports oxygen in the body
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95
Q

Where is iron found?

A

Red meat and broccoli

  • You can get extra iron through products such as Geritol
  • Or slow release iron in tablet form
96
Q

What assists in the absorption of iron (Fe2+) from the gastrointestinal tract?

A

Vitamin C

97
Q

What is porphyria?

A
  • an inherited condition explained by Felix Hoppe-Syler
  • Too much porphyrin produced
  • It can affect the sensitivity of the nervous system and/or skin
  • Reddish skin- excessive hair
  • May be the origins of werewolves
98
Q

What is the difference between ionic and elemental zinc?

A
  • Zn2+ (ionic zinc)

* Zn0 (elemental zinc)

99
Q

What percent of body weight does zinc occupy?

A

0.003% of body weight

100
Q

How many people worldwide lack zinc in their diet?

A

1 in 5

101
Q

What are health issues associated with zinc?

A
  • Healing
  • Smell- anosmia (not possible to smell foods that have gone bad)
  • Taste
  • Circulation – Raynaud’s disease
102
Q

What are the best sources of zinc?

A

One of the best sources are oysters, then nuts and meat

103
Q

What is the daily requirement for zinc?

A

10 mg per day

104
Q

How does fibre sequester zinc?

A

They capture it and run it from the body before it can be absorbed

105
Q

What is the formula for selenite?

A

SeO3^2-

106
Q

What is the function of selenium?

A

• It functions as an antioxidant that works with vitamin E

  • It is also part of glutathione peroxidase that protects cells against oxidative damage
  • 100 mcg is the daily amount, but it’s double the necessary amount
107
Q

Where is selenium found?

A

• Found in seaweed, seafood, brazil nuts, tuna, garlic/onion

  • China produces about 75% of all of the garlic in the world
  • About 12 million metric tons are produced globally
108
Q

Explain how calcium (Ca2+) is used

A
  • 99% is used in bones and teeth

* 1% nerve transmission and blood clotting

109
Q

Explain how calcium intake varies

A
  • Relatively lower amounts for younger children, then in the growing periods it increases
  • The calcium intake for women is much less than men because women are osteoporotic
  • Men take 2.7x daily recommended amount
110
Q

Where do you lose calcium?

A

In urine and stool

111
Q

What is osteoporosis?

A

“Porous bones”
- Linked to low dietary calcium
- ~9 million associated fractures worldwide (most in Europe)
- Hip fractures dramatically increase for women
- Wrist fractures are more among women
• So, more severe risk for women

112
Q

What risk factors are associated with osteoporosis?

A
  • Short stature
  • Underweight
  • Early menopause
  • Physical inactivity
  • Alcoholism
  • Smoking
  • Excess caffeine, protein, and fiber (captures calcium ions and takes them out of the body)
113
Q

True or false: the sine of individuals curves over time

A

True

114
Q

What is resorption?

A

Loss of bone mass

115
Q

Is resorption more common in males or females?

A

Females

  • For post-menopausal women: 1-5% per year
  • In males, 10-20 years later
116
Q

What is the rule of 70?

A

Take the number 70 and divide by the percent of change per time and the result is the length of time it will take to either double or halve (depending on whether the change is a decrease or increase) the circumstance in question
- 10% hip mass decrease  170% fracture increase

117
Q

What is the mechanism of calcium loss and gain?

A

Blood –> (absorption) –> bones
Bones –> (resorption) –> blood
- The problem is with the resorption (loss or break down of bone material)

118
Q

What is osteoclast?

A

Cells that liberate acid in their action

- This acid is taking away bone material

119
Q

What is a specific inhibitor of osteoclast?

A

Mediated bone resorption (ex: Fosamax)

120
Q

What is Fosamax?

A

Inhibits osteoclasts from functioning
• 3% per year increase in bone mass
• However, this is linked to jawbone problems

121
Q

What is osteoblast?

A
  • absorption
  • the matrix of material is synthesized and mineralized
  • Once the bone has been put together, the calcium has been implanted by the osteoblast
122
Q

What is an alternative to Fosamax?

A

Zometa

• Two phosphate units, relatively simple, less dosing

123
Q

What is the best detection of low bone mass?

A

• The methods that work best are single-photon or double-photon absorptiometry
- Non-invasive, on the wrist
• Average risk by calculation: FRAX (a graph)
- It’s an approximation
- If you have a large sample size, then it’s more reliable

124
Q

What is calcium carbonate?

A

Limestone

125
Q

Explain the classic test for a carbonate rock

A

if you drop acid on the rock, CO2 will form
- This explains the idea of taking calcium supplements with meals as the acid secreted in the stomach enhances absorption

126
Q

What are proton pump inhibitors?

A

They interfere with calcium absorption through the loss of having HCl, BUT they reduce bone resorption by inhibiting the osteoclastic process

  • It looks like it can increase hip fractures, but it could help some individuals
  • It can’t be defined for every single individual
127
Q

True or false: The calcium content of milk is the same for all types of milk

A

True

128
Q

Why did a study show that calcium supplementation may increase the risk for hip fracture by up to 60%?

A
  • The reason is that the supplements are calcium citrate or calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and these interfere with phosphate absorption
129
Q

What is the calcium RDA (recommended daily allowance)?

A
  • Round out to be about 1000 mg after the growing years

- You should take about 1200 mg

130
Q

What stimulates bone density and bone mass?

A

Exercise

131
Q

What are the effects of estrogen?

A
  • Helps prevent osteoporosis and may help prevent heart disease
  • However, it increases the risk of uterine cancer and may increase the risk of breast cancer
132
Q

What are the effects of estrogen plus progestin (Prempro)?

A
  • Helps prevent osteoporosis and reduces risk of uterine cancer
  • But, may further increase the risk of breast cancer and may not be as effective against heart disease
  • Without progestin, you may be protected from breast cancer
  • There was an experiment where women where taking this while others took a placebo- they stopped it because the women taking the hormones where at risk of heart attacks, stroke, breast cancer, and blood clots
133
Q

What can calcium buildup in the arteries cause?

A

It can cause heart-attacks in postmenopausal women

134
Q

How much saturated fat do we consume?

A

We consume 4-5x as much saturated fat recommended

135
Q

What have the sales of caloric sweeteners gone down?

A

Because non-caloric sweeteners have replaced them

136
Q

Explain the changes in diet from 1970-2006

A
  • Pounds per week has gone up
  • Dairy has gone down -20%
  • Every other food group has gone up
  • More food available in North America
137
Q

What are the calories per gram for carbohydrate and protein?

A

4 cal/gram

138
Q

What are the calories per gram for fats?

A

9 cal/gram

139
Q

Explain the structure of carbohydrates

A
  • Formed of C, H, and O
  • Formula: C12H2O11 or C12(H20)11 (hence the carbo-carbon and “hydrate” in carbohydrate)
  • Cm(H20)n is the building block for variations of the formula
140
Q

Explain the energy process in carbohydrates

A

• Energy + H2O + CO2 –> (plants) –> carbohydrates + O2 (composed of glucose molecules)
- Glucose molecules are consumed, giving back water and carbon dioxide (glucose oxidation)

141
Q

What is glucose oxidation?

A

Glucose molecules are consumed, giving back water and carbon dioxide

142
Q

Explain the structure of sucrose

A
  • table sugar
  • C12H22O11
  • Formed of C, H, and O
  • 8 OH groups- implies the notion of being soluble in water
143
Q

Explain the structure of glucose

A

C6H12O11 (same as sucrose, except only 6 C)
- In glucose, some H atoms are up and some are down
• Glucose is a 6 membered ring with 1 oxygen and 5 carbons in the ring
- OH groups in specific positions around the ring

144
Q

What is stereochemistry?

A

the study of spatial arrangements in molecules

145
Q

What happens when you change an OH group for a hydrogen and replace them?

A

You change the name of the sugar itself

146
Q

What is cellulose?

A
  • We cannot digest cellulose
  • Cows can though because they have the right enzymes
  • Linked to fibre (cellulose, hemi-cellulose, pectin, lignans)
  • Has been linked to contradictory conditions like constipation, diarrhea, cancer, etc.
147
Q

What is the difference in structure between starch and cellulose?

A

In cellulose, the oxygen atom connecting the molecules switches from up to down
- Starch’s bonding is more diagonal

148
Q

What is sucrose made of?

A

Glucose (dextrose) and fructose

  • The bond can be broken by an enzyme into the low component parts
  • The digestive enzyme breaks the carbohydrate into two glucose molecules which are then converted to energy through the process of complete oxidation
  • Invert sugar: 50/50 mixture of glucose and fructose
149
Q

Why is fructose used as an individual sweetener?

A

Because it is sweeter by itself than sucrose or glucose

  • Ex: in honey, fructose is much more dominant
  • Brown sugar is sucrose combined with molasses
150
Q

What is maltose?

A

disaccharide sweetening agent derived from the partial hydrolysis of starch

151
Q

What is lactose?

A

Disaccharide made up of galactose and glucose

  • Many people cannot digest lactose (around 65% worldwide)
  • White people generally digest it better
152
Q

What enzyme helps with lactose digestion?

A

Lactase is the only enzyme present that helps with digestion

  • Enzyme breaks up disaccharide into glucose and galactose
  • Alternative: consume milk products with lactaid pills
153
Q

What is Beano?

A
  • prevents gas from beans
  • Contains enzyme alpha-galactosidase
  • Breaks down small sugars that create gas
154
Q

What is starch (amylose) broken down by?

A

Amylase

155
Q

What is amylopectin?

A
  • a starch-like molecule with different branching that’s easier to digest
  • Produced in pancreatic and salivary glands
  • Amylase will break down this starch and make it sweet through breaking it down into glucose
156
Q

Why is fructose thought to be a good substitute to sucrose?

A

Has a low glycemic index- does not cause blood sugar to rise as much as sucrose
- small amounts in food is ok

157
Q

Explain how glucose and fructose is dealt with in the body

A
  • When glucose enters the bloodstream, insulin regulates it, but fructose is processed in the liver and if there is too much, it makes fats
  • Too much fat in the blood is a risk factor for heart disease
158
Q

Why is being full not triggered as well by fructose?

A

Fructose circumvents the appetite signaling system

159
Q

What does fructose promote more than glucose?

A

Fructose promotes AGEs (advanced glycation end products) more than glucose

160
Q

What causes insulin resistance leading to type 2 diabetes?

A

Excess fructose

161
Q

What is glycation?

A
  • split out the water molecule and couple nitrogen end of amino acid chain to the sugar
  • Results in unnatural binding
  • This reaction is called the Maillard reaction
162
Q

What leads to the browning of bread?

A

Water is given off in the heating process

163
Q

What is an amadori product?

A

The result of a Maillard reaction

164
Q

What are advanced glycation end products?

A

two protein chains connected to what was a sugar molecule

165
Q

What percentage of a sugar cane is sucrose?

A

15%, which is very high

166
Q

What did Norbert Rillieux do?

A
  • Lowered overall temperatures to leach the sugar out of sugar cane
  • Saved hundreds of lives, as working in a sugar cane factory was very dangerous
  • Cousin of Degas
167
Q

Explain the production of sugar

A

• Sugar production is ~22-23 kg per capita

  • Sugar production is increasing each year, but now it is starting to level off
  • Brazil is the top producer (31%)
168
Q

What is corn starch made of?

A

made of a polymer of glucose- enzymes are used to break this down into single units of glucose

169
Q

What are the steps to manufacturing high-fructose corn syrup?

A
  1. Corn starch and amylase enzymes are mixed together.
  2. The bonds forming chains of glucose molecules break resulting in 100% glucose syrup.
  3. An enzyme called glucose isomerase is added.
  4. 55% of the glucose molecules are converted into fructose.
  5. HFCS-55 is produced with a relative sweetness rating of 1.1
170
Q

What 3 enzymes break down starch into glucose?

A

alpha-amylase, glucoamylase, and glucose-isomerase

• The amylases break down starch into glucose (corn syrup)

171
Q

Which enzyme converts glucose into a high percentage of fructose?

A

glucose-isomerase

  • leads to a mixture of glucose AND fructose
  • cane up to 90% fructose
172
Q

What’s the only measure to relative sweetness?

A

Taste

173
Q

Is obesity increasing with the amount of corn syrup consumed?

A

Yes

174
Q

Explain the sugar content in cereal

A
  • Usually contains, flaked milled corn, brown sugar, sugar, and/or glucose-fructose, and honey
  • Since the sugar contents are broken down in the ingredients, it gives consumers the impression that there is less than there actually is
  • High sugar cereal is eye-level for young children in the grocery store
  • Cereals low in sugar can contain high amounts of sodium
175
Q

What happens in the presence of s. mutans in the mouth?

A

lactic acid is produced, which eats away at the tooth material, producing cavities

176
Q

What do s. mutans do?

A
  • They make lactic acid from sugar
177
Q

Explain the benefit of modified s. mutans

A
  • By modifying s. mutans, it’s possible to have everyone’s mouth bacteria changed
  • The gene responsible for turning lactic acid into sugar has been removed in the modified s. mutans
178
Q

What are high fructose drinks linked to?

A
  • They are linked with gout risk, according to a study
  • Excess fructose creates uric acid increase, which creates inflamed joints (gout)
  • Diet soft drinks are not associated with this
179
Q

What are opaque areas in the cataracts sometimes called?

A

“sugar cataracts” or “diabetes cataracts”

180
Q

What do cataracts look like?

A
  • They’re particles in the eye

- Light rays being diffused by a cataract result in a clouded lens

181
Q

Explain the role of protective proteins in the eyes

A
  • The human eye lens consists of a mix of several proteins
  • Protective proteins prevent these proteins from aggregating
  • If this protective function fails, the lens blurs and the patient develops cataracts
182
Q

What are fats important for?

A

Important for stored energy, insulation, padding, hormone production, and buoyancy

183
Q

What do fats contain?

A

Contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (C, H, O)

184
Q

Explain the chemical structure of fats

A
  • 3 carbons linked together that are each attached to an oxygen atom
  • 3 C=O groups, which are attached to chains of carbon atoms (CH2)
185
Q

What is Tristearin?

A

a saturated solid fat containing 18 carbons in each chain

186
Q

What is saturated fat?

A
  • all of the possible H atoms that can be there are there
  • Solid at room temperature (butter)
  • Ex: coconut oil contains mostly saturated fat
187
Q

Explain the significance of bonds in fats

A
  • Chains can be bonded differently

- If doubly bonded, the shape will then change

188
Q

What is unsaturated fat?

A
  • One of the chains has 2 bonds between 2 carbon atoms (a double bond –> unsaturated linkage)
  • If more than one double bond, it is polyunsaturated
  • Often liquid
  • Have a value of about 9 calories/gram
189
Q

What are key products largely consisting of fats?

A
  • Lard (~beef tallow), 100% pig fat
  • Butter: mostly saturated fat
  • Margarine: variety of fats
190
Q

Explain the significance of margarine

A

• All light margarines have a varying but considerable amount of water as they contain fewer calories
- it is cheaper than butter; given to army and lower classes

191
Q

What are some margarine products?

A

Crisco: mostly saturated fat, 20% water
Plant fats: 20-60% water
Becel light: has 60% water

192
Q

What is a CIS double bond?

A

hydrogens are on the same side

193
Q

What is a trans double bond?

A

hydrogens are on the opposite side

194
Q

What is a C=C bond (carbon double bond)?

A
  • no rotation, they are fixed and locked in

- Single bond: you can rotate

195
Q

What does hydrogenate mean?

A

to add elemental hydrogen to something

196
Q

What does hydrogenation do to margarine?

A

To prepare a margarine it is usually necessary to hydrogenate many of the double bonds to single bonds

  • Makes it a higher percentage of saturated fat that will make it a spreadable material
  • This causes a partial reorganization of the bonding to give some trans double bonds
197
Q

What is the process for trans double bonds to be formed?

A

-Hydrogenation is taking place (elemental H gas being involved in a reaction with unsaturated and CIS unsaturated double bonds)
- Catalyst: palladium or platinum
- Double bond will associate with the surface of the catalyst, where H2 is embedded (creating saturated fat)
- They both eventually become transferred one at a time  saturated fat that goes back into mixture
- When the molecule is bound to the surface, there is an opportunity for rotation around the bond
• Means that H and 3 Cs can change in position
- If the hydrogen that was transferred to the carbon rebinds to the surface, we make a trans double bond
• That trans double bonds in many cases gives a few percentage of trans fats that are not healthy (an impurity)

198
Q

Explain how trans fats are an impurity of the hydrogenation process

A

Trans fats are an impurity of the hydrogenation process. The momentary addition of one hydrogen atom to the double bond followed by a rotation of the chain about the temporary single bond linkage in the fat molecule and loss of this hydrogen atom back to the catalyst permits the reformation of a double bond in the trans arrangement
- They CAN be natural

199
Q

If margarine is mostly water, what happens?

A

You can’t freeze it

200
Q

Do natural trans fats appear to increase cholesterol levels?

A

No

201
Q

What happens if you eat too many saturated fats?

A

The arteries build up

202
Q

What percent of cholesterol in our body is made by our body?

A

80%

- saturated fat can elevate that level

203
Q

In order for chicken to be processed, what is needed?

A

Methionine is needed (an amino acid in the food)

  • Used as feed supplement for poultry raising as well as the molecule methyl mercaptan (CH3-S-H)
  • It’s one of the worst smelling things on the planet
204
Q

What materials make methionine?

A

methyl mercaptan + acrolein + H-CN + H2O

- 10 billion chickens require 100 million lbs of methyl mercaptan as part of the methionine

205
Q

What are chicken feathers used for?

A
  • Mostly protein

- mulching film, anti-hurricane roofing, biodegradable plates

206
Q

How has fish consumption changed?

A

population is being reduced by over-fishing

  • Consumption has leveled off since 2006 perhaps due to over-fishing
  • Menhaden fish is sold more than all other east coast fish (oil and protein)
207
Q

Explain the significance of omega 5 fish oil

A

The 5 means there is a double bond in the carbon chain of the saturated fatty acid

208
Q

What is fish protein used for?

A

Animal feed

209
Q

What are fat substitutes?

A
  • Gums
  • Seaweed: used as a thickening agent
  • Cellulose derivatives
  • Reduced fat mayo: water is more prevalent than vegetable oil compared to original mayo
210
Q

What are protein-based fat-reduced foods?

A
  • Microparticulates (egg, milk)

- 4 calories per gram

211
Q

What are fat-based fat-reduced foods?

A
  • Modified fats: not using saturated fats, but using liquid fats with double bonds (more saturated fat chains are added to harden the vegetable oil so that it will not be necessary to hydrogenate)
  • Interesterified soybean oil: may lower HDL and raise blood sugar
212
Q

What are synthetic fat reduced foods?

A
  • Sucrose fats: connected with short chained fats that are attached to oxygens (labeled as a fat-free fat)
  • Olestra: may cause abdominal cramping and loose stools and inhibit the consumption of some vitamins and nutrients
    • Pro: non-caloric, suitable for frying, acceptable taste
    • Con: absorbs vitamins A, D, E and K; loose stools, anal leakage
  • 0 calories per gram
213
Q

What is the goal for fats?

A

not have hydrogenated fats to avoid the trans-fat issue

214
Q

What are proteins good for?

A
  • Important for growth, tissue maintenance, and enzymatic processes
215
Q

What is protein deficiency called?

A

Kwashiorkor

- Reversible if caught in time

216
Q

Explain the significance of eggs

A

• Food rich in protein

  • When the white forms while cooking, the protein is denaturing and water is driven off
  • Because of the fat of the yolk, it won’t firm up until about 71 C
  • The white will harden at 63 C
217
Q

Explain protein structure

A

Composed of C H O and N (mostly)

  • Made of individual amino acids linked together
  • Shapes represent a different amino acid
  • Also contains a side group
218
Q

What is an amide/peptide bond?

A

Bond that holds C=O double bond to N

219
Q

Explain hydrolysis in the body

A

Bonds break and amino acids are distributed within the body

- They will reform to a different kind of protein

220
Q

What is tryptophan?

A

Its side group has two rings
- Precursor for serotonin (induces sleep)
- In 1991, the FDA banned tryptophan because of a contaminated sample linked to eosinophilia myalgia syndrome (increases serotonin levels)- people died
• They fixed this impurity

221
Q

Explain the structure of an amino acid

A
  • One end is the amino end (parent: ammonia, NH2)
  • Other end is acid, containing CO2H
  • Feature that defines the identity: R group (side group)
222
Q

How does water form among amino acids?

A

The OH portion of the acid side can be connected to the H part of the amino side, forming water (bond exchange)

  • New bonds are formed (amide bonds and water molecules)
  • Water is split away
223
Q

Why is the order of amino acids important?

A

It defines a specific protein

224
Q

How can proteins (peptides) can be broken apart?

A

can be broken apart by water in a hydrolysis reaction

225
Q

What are the essential amino acids?

A
  • Methionine
  • Arginine (for youth)
  • Tryptophan
  • Threonine
  • Valine
  • Isoleucine
  • Leucine
  • Proline
  • Histidine
  • Lysine
    (need to be in the right proportions to make the appropriate body protein)
226
Q

What are complete proteins?

A

Foods that have the balance of amino acids we require

  • Meat, fish, eggs, milk
  • Soy – easy to grow, farm, and make into products
227
Q

What are incomplete proteins?

A

Deficient in some of the amino acid components

- Wheat (very deficient in lysine), corn, rice

228
Q

What is the difference between being vegan and vegetarian?

A

Vegetarian: no consumption of animals
Vegan: no products from animals

229
Q

What is the difference between brown rice and beans?

A

Brown rice: low in lysine / Beans: high in lysine

- Beans and peanut butter can be added to bread to increase lysine content

230
Q

What is the significance of red meat?

A

Linked with mortality rates - More so processed meat

231
Q

For 1 cow to be slaughtered, how many barrels of oil energy are used?

A

5-7 barrels of oil energy

- not an efficient process whatsoever

232
Q

What is the ratio of fossil fuel energy needed to produce meat vs. vegetables ?

A

16:1

233
Q

What is the carbon footprint of meat production (in terms of carbon dioxide given in the atmosphere) compared to veggies and rice?

A

24:1

234
Q

What is the efficiency of protein production of red meat?

A

5%

235
Q

What is the recommended portion size of red meat?

A

~3 ounces

Hamburger: 8 ounces

236
Q

What kind of protein os very protein efficient?

A

Insect protein

CHEM 181 (3 decks)

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