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Psych 120B > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Cell body

A

contains nucleus

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2
Q

Nucleus

A

all computation for cell

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3
Q

Dendrites

A

important for communication

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4
Q

Axon

A

transmits electron activity

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5
Q

Axon terminal

A

transmits information to another neuron

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6
Q

Myelin sheath

A

insulation so electron signal is faster

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7
Q

Synapses

A

junction between neurons that permits information transfer

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8
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

a chemical substance used in neuronal communication at synapses

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9
Q

Cerebellum

A

used to believe it was exceptionally important to movement but now know that it is also important for sensation and perception

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10
Q

Occipital lobe

A

visual cortex

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11
Q

Primary visual cortex

A

first place where visual info goes

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12
Q

Secondary visual processing

A

where the processed info goes

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13
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

auditory cortex

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14
Q

What else is temporal lobe important for?

A

motion and visual information (sensory processing)

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15
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Primary somatosensory cortex-adjacent pars of the body are represented by adjacent parts of the brain

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16
Q

What kind of processing does the parietal lobe take part in?

A

spatial information and sophisticated motion processing

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17
Q

Frontal lobe

A

sensory processing and interpreting senses. also impulse control, judgement and motor control

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18
Q

Broca’s area is important for?

A

speech production

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19
Q

Primary motor cortex is..

A

first area involved in motor behavior (like issuing motor commands)

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20
Q

Basal ganglia

A

involved in selecting movement

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21
Q

Thalamus

A

importnat for sensory processing

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22
Q

Hippocampus

A

important for memory storage and associating sensory input together (under thalamus)

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23
Q

Amygdala

A

old structure, emotions (next to thalamus)

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24
Q

Pons/medulla

A

controls organs and their function

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25
Q

How do neurons send and receive information?

A

Synaptic transmission

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26
Q

What is synaptic transmission?

A

connection needed to be strong enough to excite the next neuron so sometimes it needs more than one neuron to signal it

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27
Q

Axon terminal in presynaptic cell communicates with…

A

dendrites of postsynaptic cell

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28
Q

Neurotransmitters are released by ____ vesicles in the ___

A

synaptic / axon

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29
Q

The synaptic vesicles then fit into the ___ on the dendrite on the other side of the ____

A

receptors / synapse

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30
Q

Bottom up vs Top Down

A

sensation -> perception -.> cognition [bottom up] reversed is top down

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31
Q

The interpretation of what is going on around you is…

A

an active process

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32
Q

The sensations you have experienced in the past allow…

A

you to have perceptions of experiences in the future

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33
Q

Define psychophysics

A

the science of defining quantitative relationships between physical and psychological (subjective) events

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34
Q

Define sensation

A

lowest level of processing; physical energy translated into informational signal (ie transduction)

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35
Q

Define perception

A

usually “interpretation” of the information, but the distinction is irrelevant

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36
Q

3 parts of perception

A
  • what is needed for survival
  • organization and selection
  • bidirectional (perception effects sensation actively)
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37
Q

Absolute threshold

A

minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected

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38
Q

Is absolute threshold step or sigmoid?

A

sigmoid

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39
Q

Explain Sigmoid function

A

probability of detection increases with the signal intensity

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40
Q

Difference threshold

A

(aka JND) the smallest detectable difference between 2 stimuli OR min change in a stimulus that enables it to be correctly judged as diff from reference stimulus

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41
Q

JND

A

just noticeable difference or how 2 different stimuli must be for the subject to notice that they are not the same

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42
Q

Method of constant stimuli

A

in which many stimuli, ranging from rarely to always perceivable, are presented at a time

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43
Q

How is constant stimuli captured?

A

various levels of stimulus intensity is used to try to find the lowest level of intensity

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44
Q

Limitations of constant stimuli?

A

It takes a long time and you have to pick the intensity and order. So you pick three intensities at 20x. You have to do each of them 20x.

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45
Q

Is there ceiling/floor effects in constant stimuli?

A

Yes. Since it is values that are predetermined you may not capture what you want to measure

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46
Q

Method of limits

A

when particular dimension of stimulus, or difference between 2 stimuli, is varied incrementally until the participants responds differently

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47
Q

What are you measuring with method of limits?

A

thresholds going from low to high, then high to low and asking participant when they cant see the stimulus anymore

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48
Q

Are the values predetermined in method of limits?

A

No.

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49
Q

Cons of method of limits?

A

people might life, sensitivity may change, require convergence, fatigue/practice effect

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50
Q

What is fatigue/practice effect?

A

are you trying to find out when someone is getting “good” at a task? Sometimes that task can go on for a long time, are you measuring when they get “tired”?

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51
Q

Method of adjustment

A

a method in which the participant controls the change in the stimulus

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52
Q

Con of adjustment?

A

participants can be unreliable BUT avoids fatigue/practice effects

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53
Q

Weber’s Law

A

the principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says that JND is constant fraction of comparison stimulus

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54
Q

Equation for weber’s law

A

difference threshold/standard = constant K OR diff intensity/intensity = constant K

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55
Q

Fechner’s law

A

a prinicple describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the magnitude of subjective sensation increases proportionally to the log of the stimulus intensity

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56
Q

Equation for fechner’s law

A

P = K log S

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57
Q

What is P, S, K in fechner’s law?

A 
P = perceptual/sensory magnitude (your experience)
S= physical intensity (physical change in stimulus)
K = constant
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58
Q

Steven’s law

A

principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the magnitude of subjective sensation is proportional to the stimulus magnitude raised to an exponent

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59
Q

Equation for steven’s law

A

P= k S^n

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60
Q

If exponent is less than 1 then…

A

sensation grows less rapidly

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61
Q

Log-Log types for Stevens law (3)

A

compression, veridical, exaggerated

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62
Q

What is compression?

A

when slope of line is less than 1, so perceived intensity grows less rapidly

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63
Q

Ex of compression

A

light doubling

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64
Q

What is veridical?

A

the slope of line = 1 and so the intensity grows equally to physical change

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65
Q

Ex of veridical

A

pencil length

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66
Q

What is exaggerated?

A

the slope of the line is greater than the ratio, therefore the perceived stimulus grows more rapidly than physical change

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67
Q

Ex of exaggerated

A

Electric shock

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68
Q

Magnitude estimation

A

method in which the participant assigns values according to perceived magnitudes of stimuli

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69
Q

Signal detection theory

A

theory that quantifies the response of an observer to the presentation of a signal in the presence of noise

70
Q

Measures obtained from SDT are ____ and ____ from the observer

A

sensitivity (d’) / criterion

71
Q

Criterion

A

an internal threshold that is set by the observer, if the internal response is above criterion then the observer gives no response and if below it gives a response

72
Q

Sensitivity

A

value that defines the ease with which an observer can tell the diff between the presence and absence of stimulus or diff between stimulus 1 and 2

73
Q

d’ = ~0

A

no sensitivity

74
Q

d’ = ~ -1

A

moderate sensitivity

75
Q

d’ = ~-4

A

high sensitivity

76
Q

Cornea

A

first tissue that light will encounter, transparent and made of ordered fibers and has no blood vessels or blood which can absorb light

77
Q

Ciliary muscles

A

responsible for stretching and compressing the zonules of zinn

78
Q

Zonules of zinn

A

responsible for changing the lens to intake light

79
Q

Iris

A

colored part of eye, has muscular diaphragm around the pupil and regulates the light entering the eye by expanding and contracting the pupil

80
Q

Foveaa

A

small pit in the center of the macula which has the highest concentration of only cones, part of the retina with the highest visual acuity

81
Q

How are images projected onto the retina?

A

reversed right to left and upside down

82
Q

Photoreceptors

A

light sensitive receptors in retina

83
Q

Rods

A

photoreceptors specialized for night vision

84
Q

Cones

A

photoreceptors specialized for daylight and fine visual acuity and color

85
Q

Bipolar cells

A

poken about in class when discussing convergence and are primarily thought of as the connection between rods/cones and ganglion cells- furthermore they are distinct as midget/ non midget cells where the former receive information from a single cone rather than multiple receptors.

86
Q

Horizontal cells

A

squeezed between rods/cones and bipolar cells these are important for creation of center surround receptive fields

87
Q

Visual angle

A

the angle that would be formed by lines going from top and bottom of a cycle on the page, passing through the center of the lens and ending in the retina

88
Q

Fovea

A

~2 degree diameter of central vision; only cones; 1% retina and ~50% of visual cortex!!

89
Q

Para-fovea

A

area immediately surrounding fovea (~4-5 degrees around center)

90
Q

Periphery

A

area beyond fovea

91
Q

Blind spot

A

location of optic nerve that leave the retina about 3 degrees diameter

92
Q

Eccentricity

A

the distnace between the retinal image and the foeva many functions depend on eccentricity of fovea like acuity, color, and motion

93
Q

Why does eccentricity influence acuity, color and motion?

A

because of the distribution of rods and cones

94
Q

What is the distribution of rods and cones like in terms of retinal location?

A

Rods are in periphery and cones are in fovea

95
Q

Pupil size

A

the diameter of pupil can vary by factor of 4; pupil size only accounts for small part of visual system ability to adapt to light/dark condition

96
Q

Photopigment regeneration

A

second mechanism for achieving large sensitivity range is providing by the way photopigments are used up and replaced in receptor cells

97
Q

Dim lighting

A

plenty of photopigment is available is available and rods and cones absorb/respond to as many as they can

98
Q

After a photopigment molecule is bleached what must happen to the molecule?

A

must be regenerated before it can be used to absorb another photon

99
Q

When number of photons start to overwhelm the system what happens?

A

photopigment molecules cannot be regenerated fast enough to detect all the photons hitting photoreceptors

100
Q

Difference between rods and cones

A

properties of rods and cones. their distribution across retina explains the difference in various function @ diff eccentricities

101
Q

Rods and cones differ in their response to wavelengths..

A

cones can detect diff colors, rods only have one kind of photopigment called rhodopsin

102
Q

Retinal ganglion cells

A

These cells are responsible for telling the brain what the eye sees

103
Q

How do retinal ganglion cells tell brain what is being seen?

A

this is accomplished through two pathways: the M absorb information from multiple converging bipolar cells whereas those in the P pathway synapse with single bipolar cells which lead to individuals cones and less information.

104
Q

Visual acutiy

A

he smallest spatial detail that can be resolved at 100% contrast

105
Q

Difference in acuity between foveal and peripheral vision

A

rods and cones in periphery are packed together less tightly than in the fovea and there are many receptors converge on each ganglion cell making acuity much poorer in the periphery than the fovea!

106
Q

The acuity-sensitivity trade-off

A

Cones have higher acuity because of their ability to see detail and color whereas rods are more sensitive as they can see in the dark, recover faster in the dark and allow you to see movement in dim lighting (this may have evo psych implications)

107
Q

Sine-wave gratings

A

a grating with sinusoidal luminance profile as shown in figure

108
Q

Sensitivity of retinal ganglion cells

A

responds (ON to light on-center and OFF to dark on-center) greatly to 0 degrees (upward sine wave) and 180 degrees (downward sine wave). Flat line response at 90 degrees and 270 degrees (responding to half light/dark in center).

109
Q

phase

A

relative position of grating

110
Q

spatial frequencies

A

the number of grating cycles (dark + bright bars) in given unit of a space

111
Q

Lateral Geniculate Nuclei

A

a structure in the thalamus, art of the midbrain, that receives input from the retinal ganglion cells and has input and output connections to the visual cortex.

112
Q

Topographical mapping

A

the orderly mapping of the world in the lateral geniculate nucleus and the visual cortex; Adjacent things are adjacent.

113
Q

Magnocellular layers

A
  • bottom two layers
  • larger cells
  • receive input from M ganglion cells
114
Q

Parvocellular layers

A
  •   top four layers
  •   smaller cells
  •  receive input from P ganglion cells
115
Q

Primary visual cortex (V1) aka striate cortex

A

the area of the cerebral cortex of the brain that receives direct inputs from the lateral geniculate nucleus, as well as feedback from other brain areas, named because it has white stripes.

116
Q

Cortical magnification factor

A

Foveal representations are ‘expanded’ relative to peripheral representations. The amount of cortical area (usually specified in millimeters) devoted to a specific region (e.g., 1 degree) in the visual field).

117
Q

Receptive field

A

the region in space in which stimuli will activate a neuron.

118
Q

Cells in V1

A

a cortical neuron whose receptive field has clearly defined excitatory and inhibitory regions

119
Q

Simple cells

A

Respond to edges/bars of specific orientations

  • orientation
  • spatial frequency
  • phase sensitive
120
Q

Complex cells

A

Orientation specific (like simple cells). But, they are most active when the oriented stimuli is moving

  • orientation
  • spatial frequency
  • phase insensitive
  • motion detection
121
Q

End-stopped cells

A

Like complex cells but respond to lines of only a certain length.

  • Orientation specific
  • Motion specific
  • Length specific
  • corners
  • motion direction
122
Q

V1 Organization

A

The cortex is organized into ‘columns’ that represent specific values of a feature. A column is a vertical arrangement of neurons. Neurons within a single column tend to have similar receptive fields and similar orientation preference.

123
Q

location columns

A
  • Columns of neurons that all have their receptive field on roughly the same location on the retina.
  • Run perpendicular to the cortex:
124
Q

orientation columns

A
  •  Column of cells that all prefer the same orientation

*  Aligned perpendicular to cortex (like location columns

125
Q

ocular dominance columns

A

property of receptive fields of striate cortex neurons by which they demonstrate a preference, responding somewhat more rapidly when a stimulus is presented in one eye than when it is presented in the other.

126
Q

Hypercolumns

A

Complete set of orientation and ocular-dominance columns for a given retinal location.
- Like a ‘super-column’ that contains all the column types

127
Q

Spatial frequency

A

essentially, the amount of ‘stuff’ present per unit length
• V1 cells are also tuned to spatial frequency
• Similar to orientation tuning

128
Q

Contrast sensitivity function(CSF)

A

The psychophysical contrast threshold is a function of spatial frequency

129
Q

Ventral stream (the “What” pathway)

A

 Processes shape/form

130
Q

Dorsal stream (the “Where” pathway)

A

Parietal lobe.Processes location, and HOW to interact with it based on location (used to plan action).
• Location (e.g. left vs. right) • More recently described as the How path
• We know “how” to interact with something, and thus where it is
• How path is used to plan action

131
Q

V2

A

Illusory contours

132
Q

V3

A

Maybe combining info for 3D perception? Unknown

133
Q

V4

A

Color

134
Q

MT (Medial Temporal)

A

Motion

135
Q

IT (Infero Temporal)

A

Shapes, form, faces

136
Q

Hue

A

the color: hue is related to wavelength (not simple relation)

137
Q

Saturation

A

distribution of light

138
Q

How “pure” is it?

A

1 wavelength is pure, lots of wavelengths is not

139
Q

Many different wavelengths is called

A

broadband

140
Q

Brightness

A

the intensitiy of light

141
Q

People see color from

A

light to dark

142
Q

Functions of color vision

A

having color vision makes it easier to discriminate good food from bad food.

143
Q

Object detection

A

Perceptual organization and object segmentation – the fruit theory of origin of color vision → (which is a tree branch with color and then monotone)

144
Q

Object recognition and identification

A

Fruits that are their actual color vs not

145
Q

Additive Color Mixing

A

Adding lights. A mixture of lights. If light A and light B are both reflected from a surface to the eye, in the perception of color the effects of those two lights add together.

146
Q

Subtractive Color Mixing

A

Adding pigments. A mixture of pigments. If pigments A and B mix, some of the light shining on the surface will be subtracted by A. and some by B. Only the remainder will contribute to the perception of color.
Each pigment reflects a certain band of wavelengths

147
Q

Simultaneous Color Contrast

A

Your perception of an object may be different due to different backgrounds OR a color in one part in the visual field affects your perception of another color

148
Q

Successive Color Contrast

A

Referred to as Afterimages, think of when you stare at an image for a long time and it gives an “after effect” when you see another image.

149
Q

Color Deficiency Observations

A
  • People who are color-blind to red are also color-blind to green.
  •   People who are color-blind to blue are also color-blind to yellow.
150
Q

Hering’s Observations

A

Types of Color deficiencies – Red-green color blindness – Blue-yellow color blindness
Color-normal people can’t see red-green together, nor blue-yellow together

151
Q

Response patterns of the three types across different wavelengths

A

Cones and 3 types of photoreceptors with preferential sensitivity

152
Q

S-cones

A

SHORT wavelengths (blue cones)

153
Q

M-cones

A

MIDDLE wavelength (green cones)

154
Q

L-cones

A

LONG wavelengths (red cones)

155
Q

The problem of univariance:

A

different wavelength-intensity combinations can elicit exactly the same response from a single type of photoreceptor. Need multiple types to discriminate. (Univariance = there’s only 1 quantity (one dimension of input and one of output) that can vary).

156
Q

Trichromatic theory

A

With three cone types we can tell the difference between lights of different wavelengths.

157
Q

Evidence for the theory

A

3 Receptors →3 primary color sensations: Blue, Green, Red. (Yellow is claimed to be combination of green & red)

158
Q

color matching experiment

A

By adjusting proportions of 3 wavelengths it’s possible to match the color of comparison to a single wavelength testfield, but need at least three wavelengths to match all wavelengths in spectrum

159
Q

Opponent color theory

A

The theory that perception of color is based on the output of three mechanisms, each of them on an opponency between two colors:
 red–green
 blue–yellow
 black–white

160
Q

Evidence for the opponent color theory

A

better at explaining simple and complex colors, contrast, exclusivity (no bluish yellow), and the color yellow itself
Physiological evidence, Opponent neurons: B+Y-, Y+B-, G+R-, R+G-

161
Q

What are the 5 color phenomena and our intuition?

A
  1.   Color Mixing
  2.   Contrast
  3. Intuitions
  4.   Color Blindness
  5. Color Cancellation
162
Q

hue cancellation experiment

A

Famous experiments: Hurvich & Jameson (1957) Cancellation experiments estimated the strength of each mechanism along the wavelength dimension.

163
Q

Unique hues

A

any of four colors that can be described w/only a single color term: red, yellow, green, blue. (other colors (e.g., purple or orange) can also be described as compounds (reddish blue, reddish yellow).

164
Q

Is young Helmholtz theory correct?

A

No.

165
Q

Color vision is ____ but it is based on the _____

A

trichromatic / 3 mechanisms at the retina

166
Q

First stage of color processing is

A

captured well by the trichromatic theory (color matching),

167
Q

Second stage of color processing

A

captured well with the opponent-process theory (afterimages, simultaneous contrast).

168
Q

What helps achieve color constancy

A

physical constaints

assumptions about the surfaces

169
Q

What are mechanisms involved in color constancy

A

– Chromatic adaptation

– Memory color

170
Q

Color adaptation is

A

The eye adjusts its sensitivity to different wavelengths and this helps achieve partial color constancy

171
Q

Color memory is

A

characteristic color of familiar objects affects their color perception. •  People judge the familiar objects to have a richer more saturated color than unfamiliar objects with the same wavelengths

Psych 120B (1 decks)

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