Midterm 1 Flashcards
Define Psychology
The scientific study of human behaviour. Explains how we account for human actions. Why?
Why do we lose our temper?
Brain development: problem in the control center of the brain
Why do we prefer sweet to bitter?
Poison = bitter (survival mechanism)
Differentiate psychology and psychiatry
Psychiatry: Medical model; Pathology of the DSM-V; medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of mental disorders
Psychology: Uses cognitive ways; turn irrational thinking into rational
What is empiricism? What are empirical studies?
Data-based knowledge
Studies with data
Name some major sub-fields of psychology
Clinical psychology Counselling Developmental psychology Cognitive psychology Industrial/organizational psychology Social psychology Health psychology Forensic psychology Sport psychology
Name the 2 major forces of psychology
Genetics and Environment (interact)
How many chromosomes do we have?
46 (23 from mom and 23 from dad)
How do genes control behaviour?
INDIRECTLY, through chemical reactions
Does environment include pre-natal?
Yes
What domains do we use to describe “the person”?
Physical Motor (fine/gross motor movement) Social Intellectual Emotional
What are perspectives? How is it also called?
Different assumptions
AKA school of thought
What are the 7 perspectives in psychology?
- Physiological/behavioral
- Learning (behavioral) perspective
- Cognitive perspective
- Psychodynamic perspective (Freud)
- Humanistic perspective
- Socio-cultural perspective
- Evolutionary perspective
What is the physiological/biological perspective
Relationship between biological processes and behaviour: Field of behavioral neuroscience
Goes about brain chemistry: Abnormal behavior related to chemical imbalances (neurotransmitters: Dopamine, serotonin)
Role of genetics: Notion of genetic vulnerability (e.g. set point theory)
Hard-wired behavior: Fight or flight
Behavioural neuroscience: How neurons function (e.g. brain damage to frontal lobe)
The endocrine system
What are the 3 major types of the learning/behavioral perspective?
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational conditioning
Explain the classical conditioning type of the learning/behavioral perspective and who inspired it.
Ivan Pavlov
He noticed that since he always fed dogs for his study, with time the dogs started salivating when he entered the room
Associate one thing with another, we learn by pairing
Stimulus –> response (e.g. television commercials)
Explain the operant conditioning type of the learning/behavioral perspective and who inspired it.
B. F. skinner
Your behavior operates on the environment (e.g. exam grades. bad grade= will work harder, good grade = repeat the good behaviour)
Shaping behaviour: REINFORCEMENT and PUNISHMENT
Consequences
Explain the observational learning type of the learning/behavioral perspective.
Media,social network, television
Role models: modelling
Explain the cognitive perspective.
Behaviour is a function of mental process (how we think, perception, memory, problem-solving)
“We come to know how to behave”
The same stimulus can be perceived differently by two people
Childhood recognition: Jean Piaget
Explain the psychodynamic perspective and who inspired it.
Sigmund Freud
Focused on the unconscious mind, everything that shape you is from your childhood
Iceberg model
Freudian slip - pre-conscious: an unintentional error regarded as revealing subconscious feelings.
Psychosexual stages: Based on childhood needs
Gratification (+) or Fixation (-)
Freud belief: Unmet needs affect later life
Explain the iceberg model
Your personality is made up of 3 different entities:
- ID: Seek pleasure, avoid pain (emotional limbic part of brain)
- Ego: Reality, rational side of the brain
- Super-ego: conscience: ego ideal
What are the 5 Freudian stages?
- Oral
- Anal
- Phallic
- Latency
- Genital –> mature psychosocial
Explain the oral freudian stage.
From birth to 12 months - mouth/feeding
When a child is born, the most sensitive part of their body is their lips. If needs are not met: Smoking, eating, nail biting, dependency, aggression, sarcasm
Explain the anal freudian stage.
12 months - age 3 - toilet training
Anal retentive: Perfectionism
Anal expulsive: Careless, messiness
Explain the phallic freudian stage.
3-6 years
Erogenous zone
Penis/clitoris –> strong sexual attachment to parent of the other sex
oedipal conflict, penis envy…
Explain the latency freudian stage.
6 to puberty
Repression of sexual impulses
Normal homosexual period
Prefer to play with own gender
Explain the humanistic perspective and who inspired it.
Basic reaction to freud
People have free-will and unlimited potential
Each person is unique, no reliance on unconscious forces
Concept of congruence: How we see ourselves vs. how we behave
Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of needs (satisfy one thing before going on to the next)
Explain the socio-cultural perspective.
Behaviours are affected by our social and cultural influences
Looks at: Gender, lifestyle, income level, age
Explain the evolutionary perspective and who inspired it.
Darwin
Examines the role of inherited tendencies
Natural selection, survival
Genes are basis of inheritance –> random mutations occur: ADAPTATION
What is a hypothesis?
An exact prediction about what is going on. A thing you refuse or affirm. NOT a question
What is a theory?
How facts are related. Explains and predicts. Theories are TESTABLE.
What are operational definitions?
Define variables. E.g. how level of PA will be measured in the study
Explain what is naturalistic observation.
Observe and record. Examination of people in normal settings.
What is the main issue in naturalistic observation?
Reliability (‘cross-validation’)
What is a case study?
Study of one subject
- Detailed description of some behaviour
- Data cannot be generalized
What is the key in surveys?
Sampling (best is random sampling=all individuals in the group have an equal chance of being chosen for the research sample)
Name 2 types of surveys
- Open-ended questions
- Likert scales (can quantify - strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, etc.)
Name the 2 basic designs for measuring change.
Longitudinal and cross-sectional
Name one benefit and two risks of longitudinal design.
Reliable
but
Takes time
Subject attrition (leave)
What is correlation and what type of relationship does it indicate?
It compares the relationship between 2 sets of data. ASSOCIATION, not cause-effect.
What is a correlation coefficient?
A number that represents how 2 measures are related
negative number = inverse correlation
The closer to 1, the stronger the correlation
What is the value of correlation?
Prediction
if you know one score, you can predict the other
Which method establishes cause-effect?
The experimental method
What is reliability in research? How do we measure reliability?
Research that we can trust, consistency of the test data
To measure reliability: Correlation coefficient
What is validity in research?
Ask question: Does it measure what it should be measuring?
Name 3 functions of neurons.
Thinking, emotions, movement… (there are +++)
Name the 4 components of neurons
Dendrite, cell body, axon, myelin
What is the function of the cell bodies in neurons?
Contain the nucleus, metabolic function, Integration of signals; decision: Fire or not fire.
What part of the neuron is defective in Down’s syndrome?
Myelin –> slow response time and decision-making
What are the 3 main tasks of a neuron?
Receive, integrate, transmit
Name 4 types of neurons.
Afferent neurons
Efferent neurons
Inter-neurons
Mirror neurons
What do afferent neurons do?
Send signal from sense organs to brain
What do efferent neurons do?
VOLUNTARY neurons (not reflex), send signals from brain to glands and muscles
What do inter-neurons do?
Carry info between neurons (messengers). Do not react
Most numerous type of neurons
What are 4 functions of glial cells and what % of the brain do they compose?
They compose 50% of the brain Functions: Support services Nutrition Remove waste Help for myelin production
Explain how neurons communicate.
They create biochemical electricity. Body fluids contain both negative and positive ions. Neurons at rest have a slight negative charge on their membrane (resting potential). Incoming signal changes ionic balance: Positive ions (sodium) rush-in and depolarize the resting potential, while chloride (-) ions are forced out.
What are the 3 parts of the synapse?
What happens with NTs that are not used?
Axon terminal –> synaptic gap –> dendrite of the next neuron
Unused NT are “sucked back” to the axon terminal (re-uptake)
Explain the action of cocaine on neural transmission and which NT it affects.
Cocaine prevents the re-uptake of dopamine.
Define neurotransmitters.
Endogenous drugs produced by neurons.
How many NTs are known?
about 50
What are the actions of acetylcholine as a NT?
Acts on motor control over muscles, attention, learning, memory and sleeping.
What is the faulty NT in Alzheimer’s disease?
Acetylcholine is lacking in Alzheimer’s. Deteriorates slowly
What does Botox do cellularly?
Inhibits Ach –> paralyzes facial muscles
What are the actions of serotonin as a NT?
It is an inhibitory mood transmitter
Functions: Relax, sleep
What happens when you lack serotonin?
Mood disorders, impulsivity issues, emotional states e.g. aggression
What does prozac do?
Targets serotonin neurons to reduce anxiety.
What are the actions of Dopamine as a NT?
Reinforcement and pleasure: Emotional arousal (sex, gambling, eating when hungry…) “feel good” brain chemical.
Motor control of voluntary movements
What can an excess of dopamine cause?
Schizophrenic behaviour, psychosis
Anti-psychotic drugs block dopamine
What can too little dopamine cause?
Parkinson’s disease: Motor control, tremors.
What are the actions of glutamate as a NT?
Primary excitatory NT, released by 40% of our neurons
Enhances the action potential (more likely the neuron will fire)
Inhibits sleep (coffee, caffeine)
Where is glutamate most active?
Higher frontal brain centers: Learning, thought, memory
What are the actions of endorphins as a NT?
Inhibitory NT
Pain reduction, calm, hunger regulation, sexual pleasure, positive addiction (“runner’s high”), slows respiration
Which drugs trigger endorphins?
Opium, heroin, morphine
Which NT plays a role in postpartum depression?
Endorphins
What makes up the CNS?
Brain (1.5 kg) and spinal cord
What are the 2 major subdivisions of the CNS?
Somatic nervous system (SNS)
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
What does the somatic NS do?
Controls our voluntary movements. Eyes, hands, muscle contractions. Sensory and motor neurons.
What does the autonomic NS do?
Control our internal body functions (heart, digestion, breathing etc.)
What are the 2 subdivisions of the ANS?
Sympathetic (raises HR, F or F syndrome)
Parasympathetic (opposite)
What are the 4 lobes of the brain?
- Frontal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Occipital lobe
- Temporal lobe
What are the 4 structures of the lower part of the brain?
- Medulla
- Pons
- Cerebrellum
- Reticular activating system
What are the functions of the medulla?
Basic survival functions (i.e. heart rate, respiration, swallowing, orgasm, gagging)
What are the functions of the pons?
Relays messages for movement, sleep cycles
What are the functions of the RAS?
Attention and arousal, activates higher areas of the brain
Filters low-level messages to avoid overload
Not matured until adolescence –> children have a low attention span
What are the functions of the cerebrellum?
Coordination, movement, balance, posture
Orchestrates everyday movements
Sensitive to alcohol and drugs
Has a role in habit formation
What are the 3 main portions of the brain above the brainstem?
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Limbic system
What are the functions of the thalamus? What is its shape?
2 egg-shaped structures above the brainstem
All sensations go through the thalamus except smell
Acts as a relay center for messages on their way to the cerebral cortex
What are the functions of the hypothalamus?
It acts as the body’s thermostat: regulates basic drives
Hunger, sex, thirst
What are the 2 subdivisions of the limbic system?
- Amygdala (total of 2: One on each side of the brain)
2. Hippocampus
What are the main functions of the amygdala?
Brain’s alarm system
Key to emotion, especially fear. This is why we react before we think. Emotional reactions are faster than conscious ones because of the amygdala. FAST, but SLOPPY.
Trigger for fight or flight; instant reaction
What explains the phenomenon of the “terrible twos”?
At age 2, the amygdala is well-developed but the frontal cortex (responsible for control) is not
What can damages to the amygdala cause?
Less facial recognition of emotion
Tone of voice not recognized
Docile behaviour
What are the main functions of the hippocampus?
Seahorse structure
Essential for new memories (short-term: 30 seconds)
Converts short term into long-term memory
Damage leads to no NEW memories
Plays a role in “neural maps”
How is the cerebrum split?
- Cerebral cortex
2. Association areas
What is the function of the cerebral cortex?
Action part of the cerebrum. DOING.
What are the functions of association areas
Quiet, thoughts. No action.
What connects both hemispheres?
The cerebrum is composed of 2 hemispheres (L & R)
Connected by corpus callosum
What is done in severe epilepsy?
Corpus callosum is cut.
The right side of the brain controls the left side of the body through what?
Motor cortex
Which lobe is the largest?
Frontal lobe
What are the functions of the frontal lobe?
Contains motor cortex (strip of tissue at the back of the frontal area that controls voluntary movements)
LEFT frontal contains BROCA’s AREA.
The frontal association area: Thinking, impulse control, planning for future, emotions, empathy (mirror neuron))
Linked with PERSONALITY, civility
What are the functions of Broca’s area?
Production of speech (motor)
Broca’s aphasia: Understand things but cannot speak
Personality disorders often associates with which lobe/area of the brain?
Frontal area
What are the functions of the parietal lobe? Where is it located?
Located on the top, behind the frontal lobes
Contains the SOMATO-SENSORY cortex
Reception and processing of: touch, pressure, temperature, pain
Left and right parietal lobes are wired to opposite sides (cross-over)
What can damage to the parietal cause?
Maybe cannot feel the difference between sandpaper and silk
Name one way in which the parietal lobe can adapt to needs.
Blind people must read Braille: Finger touch is bigger
What are the functions of the occipital lobe?
Primary visual cortex; interpret visual stimula
Each eye is connected to both the right and left lobe
Association areas hold memories of past visual experiences
What are the functions of the temporal lobe?
Hearing (ears catch soundwaves)
Contain the Wernicke area (left temporal): Comprehension for spoken and written words. Unscramble sound into recognizable words
Where is the Broca’s area? Motor cortex? Wernicke area? The somatosensory cortex?
Frontal lobe
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
Name functions of the brain’s right hemisphere.
Control the left side of the body Music processing Emotional thinking Perceiving visual-spatial relations Non-verbal, puts words in context, facial recognition, art, music, puzzles
Name functions of the brain’s left hemisphere.
Control the right side of the body Spoken and written language Numerical skills Reasoning (logic) Verbal, listening, analysis, step-by-step procedures, math, logic
What happens if the right hemisphere of the brain is damaged?
Loss of ability to understand jokes and sarcasm
What is the most likely explanation for left-handedness?
Likely determined by a single gene in the female X chromosome
Name 2 advantages of being left-handed
Post-stroke language recovery
Math
What is mixed-laterality?
When one writes with right hand but kicks better with left foot, for example.
Name 4 ways in which we can assess the effects of brain damage
MRI
PET scan
CT scan
EEG (electroencephalogram)
What does an MRI do?
Reveals brain structures
Can also be functional MRI: brain in action
What does an EER do?
Measures brain waves (4 types)
e.g. delta wave –> deep sleep
What does a CT scan do?
Cross-sectional views of the brain by rotating X rays
What does a PET scan do?
Reveals brain activity
Injected radioactive glucose or inhales oxygen with low radioactivity
Look at how the brain consumes glucose/oxygen
What is brain plasticity?
Ability of the brain to rewire after injury/compensate for damage
How does brain plasticity change with time and with gender?
Best at less than 13 years old
Favors women
Name gender differences in the brain
Evolutionary forces
- Men: aggressive; women: caregiver, emotional
Structural differences
- Women have a thicker corpus callosum = greater emotional awareness. E.g. children girl vs boy with frightening stimulus: Girls will be more scared bc more aware of their world than boys
Pathways
- Men and women do the same task but use different routes (MRI studies)
Which is the master gland
Pituitary
What is the effect of thyroxine?
Breakdown of food (metabolism)
What is the effect of too much thyroxine?
Hyper, nervous, thin
What is the effect of too little thyroxine?
Sluggish, overweight
Sight and smell of food can result in the release of which hormone?
Insulin
Normal insulin also stimulates hunger
What do the adrenal glands do?
Stimulate the sympathetic NS through release of epi/norepinephrine
PMS affects the level of which hormone and can lead to what symptoms?
Decreases serotonin –> anxiety, depression and fluid retention
Which is the key hormone produced by the hypothalamus and what are its main functions?
OXYTOCIN "love hormone" Pro-social behaviour Oxytocin is released during sexual activity Intensity of orgasm Linked to stress reduction
