Midterm 1 Flashcards
Glen Trewartha’s Model of Geography
- people are the creators and originators of the cultural landscape
- the natural earth provides the environment and the resources
Population Geography
- The spatial analysis of population growth and change as the processes occur over different parts of the world. Focuses on the variations in the distribution, composition, and growth of populations.
How much of the population lives in the northern hemisphere?
90%
Why a Census?
- Representatives…shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers… The Actual enumeration shall be made within 3 years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of 10 years in such manner as they by law direct.
Enumeration
- population count for the sake of determining how many representatives the state has
- each state by default has 1 representative
What gives the Census Bureau the legal role of providing counts for redistricting within one year?
- Public Law 94-171 (PL 94-171)
Apportionment
- the process of dividing the 435 membership, or seats, in the House of Representatives among the 50 states states based on the population figures collected during the decennial census
What are the methods of apportionment?
- jefferson method
- webster method
- vinton or hamilton method
- method major fractions
- method of equal proportions
Jefferson Method
- fixed ratio with rejected fractional remainders
Webster Method
- fixed ratio with retained major fractional remainders
Vinton or Hamilton
- predetermined number of the House and divided the population of each state by a ratio determined by dividing the apportionment population by the total number of representatives; subject to the Alabama Paradox where a state could lose representatives if the size of the House were increased
Method of Major Fractions
- used between 1910-1930, ratio that was selected would result in a predetermined size
Method of Equal Proportions
- calculation that ranks state by population
Gerrymandering
- The practice of drawing districts that establishes an advantage for a particular party by manipulating geographic boundaries
- Used to help secure electoral votes for a particular political party or to hinder particular demographic groups
Types of Gerrymandering
Summary Files (SF) for 2000
- SF1 – 100% count, less detail “short forms”
- SF2 – estimates of the sample (gave a range)
- SF3 – 20% sample, much more detail “long form”
- SF4 – 20% sample, control for more variables
Changes in Summary Files in 2010
- Only the short form (SF1) given out
- American Community Survey (SF3) now collects detailed data (no long form)
- Started as a pilot project with selected counties – went national in 2005
- Released in 1-year, 3-year, and 5-year files
- Small areas only in 5-year files
Mean Center of Population
- The point at which an imaginary, flat, weightless, and rigid map of the United States would balance if weights of identical value were placed on it so that each weight represented the location of one person on Census Day (April 1).
What is the largest local level geography?
- the state
- The country is the administrative arm of the state
- All state functions are done at the county level
how are counties subdivided into census tracts?
- the census tract includes about 4,000 to 7,000 people
- it is subdivded into sections of 7 to 9 blocks
- they are the smallest geography census data
what is Fertility
measure of actual numbers of children born
what does PUMs stand for?
Public Use Microdata Samples
fecundity
physiological capacity to produce children
What is PUMs
Sample of individual household records
Use unique census geographies to protect identities
Highly detailed data files and very useful for social research
when is PUMS available?
only for populations greater than 100,000
what has happened to the US population as it has grown in terms of births?
- the number of births have increased, but the birth rate has declined
- there are more babies being born, but fewer babies per women
how much has the population grown since the first census in 1970?
- from 3.9 million to 287 million
how do you calculate crude birth rates?
- (number of births) / (total population)* 1000
What is the greated weakness of the CBR?
- it is strongly influenes by the age-sex structure of a population, but does not take it into account its computation
- it doesn’t consider how many women in the population are having children
- it doesn’t consider how old the population is
is the CBR a good indicator for whether or not a population has a high birth rate?
- no, it’s main uses are for computing the rate of natural increase (because the CBR and CDR need to have the same denominator)
- it is also used for computing population momentum
- does not take age-sex structure into account in its computation.
General Fertility Rate
- begins to control for population strucutre by computing the number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing years
how is the GFR computed?
live births/population (of femails 10-54) *1000
why/how do birth rates vary among countries?
by age and culture
how is age-specific fertility rate computed?
births to an age cohort *1000/ female population of that age cohort
how/why does ASFR vary among countries?
- society influences woman to have more or less children depending on the cultural norms
- in the US, highest ASFR is 20-29
- among certain immigrant and refugee groups, highest ASFR is in lower age cohorts
how is the total fertility rate computed?
TFR= h(thesum of ASFR)/1000
h= width of the age groups used (i.e. 5 age cohorts)
how does the total fertility rate difffer from the CBR?
it controls the age-sex structure of the population
what is total fertility?
the number of children the typical woman in a culture will bear over her lifetime
what are the assumptions of the total fertility rate?
women will have the same births over their lifetimes as women of specific ages had in that year
women will survive until the end of their childbearing years
replacement rate
the TFR necessary to replace the current population
if the TFR is below replacement, population decline if no immigration
what is the typical replacement rate?
2.1 (a little over two to replace the current population because it takes at least 2 people)
gross reproduction rate
GRR= expected number of femal children that a woman will have
assumptions of the GRR
same as TFR, plus assumptions of no sex-selection abortion
how is GRR calculated?
- TFR * Ratio of female births to total births
- in the US there is typically 105 male births per 100 female births
- current ratio for entire world is 101 boys to 100 girls.
Crude/arithmetic density computation
total population/ total square miles = persons per square mile
physiological/nutritional density computation
total population/total arable land in sq miles= persons per square mile of arable land
agricultural density population
farm population/ total arable land in sq miles= farm population per square mile of arable land
what does the hoover index measure?
how concentrated a population is by measuring what proportion of that population would have to move in order to redistribute the population evenly
hoover index computation
r
H = 50 Σ | Pi – Ai |
i
what does Pi mean in the hoover index calculation?
Pi = Population of Subunit i/ Total Population
what does Ai mean in the hoover index calculation?
Ai = Area of Subunit i/ Total Area
what is the Hoover Index of Concentration and how does one interpret it?
The Hoover Index of Concentration is an index from 0 to 100 that gives a relative idea of how concentrated or evenly distributed a population is.
It is not a percent, but it infers the percent of the population that would need to move to evenly distribute the population.
The higher the index, the more concentrated the population, and vice versa.
median age
mid point age
where half the population is above, half below
a single index that summarizes the age distribution of a population
what does it mean when a populations Median age is mid-30s
balanced population across age groups
what does it mean when the median age is higher than 40
increasing life expectancy but small child population
what does it mean when the median age is in the low 20s down into teens
country is experiencing issues such as infant mortality, water quality, housing, disease – more children are surviving and contributing to a period of rapid growth (basic public health measures)
sex ratio
how do you compute it?
ratio of males to females
number of males / number of females
if the sex ratio is > 1 what does it mean?
there are more males than females
if the sex ratio is < 1, what does it mean?
there are more females than males
what is the dependency ratio?
The proportion of the population in the workforce to the proportion dependent on the workforce
Total Dependency Ratio computation
P(0-14)+P(65+)/ P(15-64) * 100
Youth Dependency Ratio computation
P(0-14) / P(15-64) * 100
Aged Dependency Ratio computation
P(65+) /P(15-64) * 100
what is a population pyramid?
Graphical means of describing a combined age-sex structure of a population
what does this graph indicate?
where is it typically like this?
that the population is growing rapidly
it is like this in mostly rural areas
what does this graph indicate?
the population is expanding
longer life expectancy
high birth rates
low death rates
what does this graph indicate?
the population is stationary
low birth rate
low death rate
more people living in old age
what does this graph indicate?
a contracting population
low birth rate
low death rate
higher dependency ratio
longer life expectancy
Replacement level
It refers to the total fertility rate that will result in a stable population without it increasing or decreasing.
Paleolithic hunter-gatherer societies
Comprised of small bands of approximately 25-50 individuals
Organized based on kinship
Universal mode of existence was foraging – fishing, hunting, and gathering of wild plant materials
Imbalances in productivity and consumption reflected in divisions of labor - structured in a way that is relevant for cooperative behavior
Hunter-gatherer ecologies unable to support large populations – low carrying capacity.
Population between 2-3 million
How did people migrate to the Americas?
Established theory of the “Ice Free Corridor” allowing the Americas to become populated was declared biologically unviable. First peoples to reach the Americas crossed land bridge between Siberia and Alaska, and ice-free corridor allowed them to push farther south. While people used the corridor, it could not have been used prior to 12,600 years ago since the corridor lacked essential resources for hunter-gatherer lifestyles. People made transition south via different corridor – migrated along the Pacific coast.
in what order did the major world revolutions take place?
agricultural
urban
industrial
medical
what happened during the agricultural revolution?
- Approximately 7,000 to 10,000 years ago
- Transition from hunter-gatherer groups to semi-permanent and permanent settlements.
- Domestication of flora and fauna – the process by which over time the planting or breeding of wild species makes the cultivation dependent on human interaction
- Increased technology, no matter how simple, leads to increased carrying capacity, the number of people able to be supported by an area of land
- Domestication of flora and fauna increases carrying capacity
- World’s population approximately 30 million
what do rivers do?
transport nutrients from higher elevations to flood plain regions.
what do valcanic and alluvial soil do?
deposits provide fertile soils, which allow for high carrying capacity.
what happened during the urban revolution?
- Semi-permanent settlements grows into permanent settlements as cultivation techniques improve.
- Occurred approximately 2,000 to 3,000 years ago
- Resulted in public works projects: irrigation systems, silos, roads, housing, etc.
- Improved quality of life because you now have a better fed and healthier population living
- Food surplus results in the form of a market economy trading/selling this surplus
- Advances in agricultural technology allowed dependence on fewer farmers
- Growth of urbanism and specialization of labor
- Growth of armies to protect territories and food supplies
- World population in year 1 is approximately 170 to 190 million
what happened during the industrial revolution?
- No longer needed teams of animals – use of inanimate energy to do work
- Factories no longer needed to be located along a river
- Increasingly rapid changes in agricultural technologies leads to increased carrying capacity and population.
- Increasing population leads to increasingly shorter doubling time (the number of years it takes for a population to double).
- Bessemer Process revolutionizes steel making
- In 1650 world population approximately 545 million
what was the most significant techonologial advancement during the industrial revolution?
the invention of the steam engine in the 17th century
what is the Bessemer Process and why is it important?
- was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace
what happened during the medical revolution?
- Shift from seeing disease as a spiritual issue to understanding microbes.
- Birth of Medical Geography
- General Washington inoculated troops during American Revolution to induce building immunity to the disease.
- Vaccine for smallpox developed in 1796 by British physician Edward Jenner.
Medical Geography
- traces disease outbreaks to identify sources, detects carrier agents, traces spatial diffusion, and prevents recurrences.
- Tropical Africa is the source of many serious diseases
- Research on carriers, environmental conditions, social and cultural geographies of dispersion/transmission.
- Endemic disease infects many people without causing rapid or widespread deaths.
- Disease affects quality of life and productive capacity.
Late 18th century, beginnings of understanding of disease
- Shift from seeing disease as a spiritual problem to understanding microbes
- First disease understood is smallpox – early to mid 18th century
- 1830s cholera is understood as a bacterial waterborne disease
- 1918 flu pandemic helps scientists understand virus transmission
- Decline of infant mortality, which leads to rapid population growth
- World population in the year 1900 approximately 1.6 billion; 2016 approximately 7.4 billion
how did scientists understand cholera during the medical rev?
saw it as a waterborn disease
Endemic disease
infects many people without causing rapid or widespread deaths
Rate of Change computation
r= (P t 2/Pt1 – 1)
what are the two key assumptions of the calculation of the rate of change?
- the rate of change over 10 years is assumed to be equally divided across each of the 10 years
- the population is assumed to continue to grow at the same rate as it has in the past.
what is a populations doubling time?
the number of years it takes for a population to double
how do you compute a populations doubling time?
DT = ln(2)/r1-year
DT = .6931/r
–To get “r” in 1 year periods divide “r” by 10
DT = ln(2)/(r/10)
Based on Exponential Growth
Formula is algebraic solution for how many years it take for Pt+n to equal 2*Pt
what kind of doubling time would a number of European countries have
because of the low birth rates, the doubling time can sometimes be impossible to compute (because of negative numbers), but populations that are growing at extremely slow rates would have doubling times in the thousands
Geometric growth computation
Pt+n = Pt (1 + r)n
what does Pt+n represent in the geometric/exponential growth equation?
the year you are initially projecting to
what does Pt mean in the geometric/exponential growth equation?
Pt is the ending point for computing the rate of change
what does r mean in the geometric/exponential growth equation?
r is the rate of change
what does the n stand for in the geometric/exponential growth equation?
n=the number of time periods you are projecting forward.
the time period is usally 10 years, so n would be 1 if we are projecting 10 years forward
exponential growth computation
Pt+n = Pt er*n
what are Thomas Malthus’ theories?
- Humans tend to reproduce geometrically.
- The capacity to produce food and fiber expands more slowly (arithmetically)
- population can reach a point of crisis
- Population growth was primary cause of subsistence level wages for laborers.
what is Thomas Malthus’ theory of the point of crisis?
- Population will exceed food supply unless population growth is checked by society.
- If growth continues, surplus populations will be reduced by war, disease, famine,…
what are some neo-malthusian critques and theories?
- Some people have responded to previous theories by revisiting Malthus.
- Malthus did not foresee the Industrial Revolution or Green Revolution.
- Birth control and technological innovations have only delayed the population/production crisis and disaster may still strike.
- Some neo-Malthusians believe that overpopulation may increase resource depletion and environmental degradation, with the potential of ecological collapse or other hazards.
what are some of Karl Marx’s theories of population?
- Wrote in the mid-19th century.
- Economic and social benefits can be enhanced only by increasing the labor force, particularly in a capitalist society.
- More workers would mean more tax payments that could be used for greater social benefits.
- So-called over-population and population pressure are imperfections of the capitalist economic system.
what are some of Ester Boserup theories?
- Wrote in the mid-20th century, when the green revolution took place
- The stress of increasing demand stimulates change in traditional agricultural systems
- The rate of population growth would decline in response to modernization
- she supported Micro-enterprise loans
- Creativity to compensate to population growth– never reach a crisis point
- Significant declines in birth rates in numerous rapid-growth countries – fewer babies needed as economic resources
what is Demographic Transition?
The transition from a situation where fertility and mortality are high and uncontrolled to a situation where fertility and mortality are low and controlled
what has happened to the global age strucutre?
what does Mortality refer to?
susceptibility to death
what does Morbidity refer to?
- prevailing condition of disease (disability and illness) in a population
- refers to the frequency of disease
what does Incidence refer to?
how diseases spread through a population over time
what does Prevalence refer to?
how much disease is encountered in a population at a given moment
epidemiological transition
a phase of development witnessed by a sudden and stark increase in population growth rates brought by medical innovation in disease or sickness therapy and treatment, followed by a re-leveling of population growth from subsequent declines in fertility rates
leading causes of deaths in the 20th century
what is a crude death rate?
deaths in a given year per thousand persons in the midpoint population
Crude Death Rate computation
Deaths/Population * 1000
what is the Death Rate
- ratio of total deaths to total population in a specified community or area over a specified period of time.
- expressed as the number of deaths per 1,000 of the population per year. Also called fatality rate.
death rate computation
Deaths between T1 and T2
Population (midpoint)
Probability of Dying computation
# Deaths among Population T1
Population T1
what is the infant mortality rate
refers to deaths of young children, typically those less than one year of age. It is measured by the infant mortality rate, which is the number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births.
infant mortality rate computation
1M0 = 1D0/B * 1000
1M0 = mortality between birth and 1 year
1D0 = deaths between birth and 1 year
B = number of births
what is life expectancy
- the number of years someone born today is expected to live
- Based on the probability that a stationary population of 100,000 will survive into subsequent cohorts.
how is life expectancy calculated
Life expectancy is calculated using the age-specific death rates of a population.
what regions have the highest rates of HIV Infection
African countries with high HIV/AIDS rates are experiencing massive declines in life expectancy.
what does it mean to domesticate flora and fauna?
- it is the process by which over time the planting or breeding of wild species makes the cultivation dependent on human interaction
what is environmental determinism
environmnet dictates how people develop, use land etc
distributes people’s behaviors to the land they come from
ignored key political situations and places people in social hierarchies
