Midterm 1 Flashcards
Government of Canada’s Definition of Family
- Married couple and the children of the spouses
- A couple living common-law and the children of the partners
- A lone parent of any marital status with at least one child living in the same dwelling
- All members of a particular census family live in the same dwelling
- A couple may be of opposite or same sex
- Children may be children by birth, marriage, common-law union or adoption regardless of age or marital status as long as they live in the dwelling and don’t have their own married spouse, common-law partner or child living in the dwelling
- Grandchildren living with their grandparents but with no parents present
Vanier Institute of Family Functional Definition of Family
• Any combination of 2 or more persons who are bound together over time by ties of mutual consent
• Birth/adoption/placement together
• Assume responsibilities for one or more of:
○ Physical maintenance and care of group members
○ Addition of new members through procreation or adoption
○ Socialization of children
○ Social control of members
○ Production, consumption, distribution of goods and services
○ Affective nurturance - love
Increased ___ in the 1980’s and 1990’s
cohabitation
Increase in ___
divorce
more equitable ___
family laws
characteristics of healthy families
- Commitment
- Effective communication patterns
- Spending time together
- Shared value system
- Coping with stress
- Appreciation
- Balancing of needs
What is central and most important for the healthy development of children?
The parent-child relationship
In all cultures, grandparents influence children’s development ___
indirectly and directly
The definition of the family that the government uses severs which following purpose
Development of policy and future planning
The cognitive/social input is more important than
The size of family, the cultural practices and the family structure
autocratic parenting - Hobbesian perspective (20th century)
○ Taming of the child’s will
○ Religious and cultural mandate
○ Miniature monarchy
○ Unquestioned obedience of children
autocratic parenting - Calvinist doctrine (20th century)
○ Inherent sinfulness of child
○ Firm discipline, corporal punishment
○ Strict obedience and submission
Three outstanding features of parent-child relations
○ Developmental parenting
○ Bidirectional parenting
○ Life span parenting
Sigmund Freud (1930’s)
- Acceptance of children’s basic instinct
- Detrimental effect of harsh parenting
John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (1940’s)
- Importance of parental attachment for socialization
- Secure attachment = parent has consistent responsiveness to child
- Insecure/avoidant/disorganized attachment = inconsistent responsiveness
Rene Spitz (1950’s)
Importance of responsiveness - crucial to development
Benjamin Spock (1940’s-70’s)
- Challenged harsh childrearing approaches
- Influenced parenting styles
B.F. Skinner (20th century)
- Operant conditioning, importance of reinforcement of positive behaviours
- Reinforcement of positive behaviour, rather than punishment of negative behaviour
Bandura and Walters (1960’s)
Social learning theory - children can learn even without direct instruction, they can learn a lot from interacting with the environment and observing
Erik Erikson (1960’s)
Psychosocial maturity through resolution of stage-specific crisis
Maria Montessori (1909)
- Freedom to explore and learn
- Children have absorbent minds and are motivated to learn
- Sensitive/crucial periods to teach children to master a skill
- First 6 years - should have freedom with limits, respect individual differences, support children in their learning, don’t impose your own ideas onto them
Caroline Pratt (1948)
Importance of play - childhood work is learning through play
Jean Piaget (1960’s-70’s)
Cognitive development - children are active participants in their own learning
Lev Vygotsky (1978)
- Sociocultural theory - instruction, support (social/instrumental), scaffolding of learning
- Children are able to master skills as we provide the context for participation/engagement
Rudolph Dreikurs (1960’s)
- Democratic relationships
- Belonging and acceptance by others
Family Development Theory
- Successive stages over time
- 8 stages based on composition of the family
- Traditional nuclear family
Systemic Family Development Model
Family dynamics across generations and interactional intricacy of families
Social Domain Theory
- Social beings, basic motivation to belong
- Purposeful behaviours
- Decision makers
- Perception of reality
- Parent and child not equal in privileges/responsibility
- Parents and children have equal worth
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1970’s) - Bioecological Model
- Social context of interpersonal relationships
- Multiple influences on parental childrearing behaviours
- Micro, meso, exo, macro and chronosystems
Family Systems Theory
- Family as dynamic systems characterized by stability and change
- Impact of developmental changes on children’s lives
- Normative and non-normative events
- Rules should be explicit
- Enhancement of stability - adapting expectations and behaviours based on changing needs
Theory
Fundamental beliefs, abstract ideas, assumptions about the nature of a phenomenon
Implicit theory
Parental ethno theories - organized sets of ideas of how parents should operate (Eg. Management of child’s sleep)
Explicit Theory
Formal ways of understanding things
Assumptions of theory
○ Nature of children ○ Nature of the relationship ○ Nature of processes ○ Causality ○ Desired outcomes ○ Concepts, models, constructs, hypotheses ○ Generalizations
Unidirectional models (mechanistic)
Parent –> child
Bidirectional models
Parent influencing child and child influencing parent
3 domains of parent-child relationship
- authority
- attachment
- intimacy
authority
- Authority and hierarchical power
- Normally, the parent is seen as having more power than the child
- Unequal power “interdependent asymmetry” - the child and parent each have relational power, personal power …
attachment
responsive caregiving
intimacy
- Hedonistic motive based on pleasure
- Co-constructed meaning-making
- Momentary intimate interactions can be created
- No avoidance of or imposition of meaning-making
- The difference between a child-parent relationship and friend-friend relationship is “choice”, you can’t choose your parents but you can choose your friends and choose when to end that relationship
The view that children are inherently sinful is an example of how ___ affects parenting
religion
Research has shown that a lack of parental responsiveness is associated with
delayed development
The key feature of bidirectional model of parenting is that
children and parents influence each other
All of the following are outstanding features of parent-child relations except
unidirectional parenting
developmental parenting, bidirectional parenting and life span parenting are good
parenting goals
• Tasks of Parenting
○ Psychological goals of parenting
- autonomy and relatedness
- changes in neat classification of cultures
○ Specific developmental goals
- values and developmental goals
- developmental goals based on co-existence of values
• Interpretive lens
• Acquisition of important skills
• Recognition of cultural variations in beliefs and practices
• Transmission of beliefs and practices
autonomy and relatedness (psychological goal of parenting)
○ No dichotomy
○ Similar goals in diverse cultural contexts
○ Coexistence of collectivist and individualist values in communities
changes in neat classification of cultures (psychological goal of parenting)
○ Increased globalization ○ Complex conceptualization of children's development ○ Changes in immigration ○ Political and economic trends ○ Technological advancement
values and developmental goals (specific developmental goals of parenting)
○ Personal choice ○ Intrinsic motivation and persistence ○ Self-esteem ○ Self-maximization ○ Connection to family and other close relationships ○ Orientation towards the larger group ○ Respect and obedience
developmental goals based on co-existence of values (specific developmental goals of parenting)
○ Conflicting = Interfering
○ Additive = Endorsement of both without explicit connection
○ Functional dependence = Importance as a path to developmental goals in either individualism or collectivism
Parenting Style
- a constellation of attitudes towards the child that are communicated to the child and create an emotional climate in which the parents behaviours are expressed
- Indirect influence on child outcomes
parenting styles by Baumrind
○ Authoritative (high warmth, high control)
○ Authoritarian (low warmth, high control)
○ Permissive (high warmth, low control)
○ Unengaged (low warmth, low control)
parenting practices
- Specific, goal-directed behaviours through which parents perform their parental duties
- Tend to have immediate impact on children
- Practices include: beh, psych, control, affection
5 domains of socialization
○ Protection ○ Reciprocity ○ Control ○ Guided learning ○ Group participation
It is sufferance, not power, that children are able to evoke the desired responses from their parents behavioural repertoire. This statement is associated with
parenting styles
Which of the following has only an indirect effect on child outcomes
Parenting styles (Not parenting practices or domains of socialization)
What are the two dimensions of parenting styles?
Responsiveness and demandingness
Which view of socialization is based on understanding of the parent-child relationship, parental behaviour and mechanism of socialization?
Domains of socialization
3 views regarding how parents socialize their children
○ Parenting styles
○ Parenting practice
○ Domains of socialization
The nonshared experiences of mainstream populations with children of colour are
social position, racism and segregation
humanistic parenting
discourages racial socialization, focuses on working hard and being a good citizen
additional parenting tasks of minority parents include
ensuring educational success and racial socialization
the following is a form of racial socialization
teaching about pluralism
A set of shared values, beliefs, and practices that is created by a group of individuals that guides their social relationships and affects their developmental pathways is a definition of
culture
Lightfoot and vlasiner made a distinction between 2 types of cultures
collective and personal
Research has challenged the dichotomous cultural systems as parents in the east endorsed independence
more than parents in the west
models of cultural transmission
bidirectional and unidirectional
parenting, fathering and culture are
socially constructed
parenting in minority families is different from parenting in mainstream population due to
additional issues and tasks
social position and social stratification constructs are at the core of which theoretical formulation of children’s development
integrative model
a primary agent of socialization is the
family
Levine’s universal parenting goals include
- physical survival and health of the child
- development of the child’s capacity for economic self-maintenance in maturity
- development of the child’s behavioural capacities for maximizing other cultural values
what is the source of parental beliefs
culture
the domains of the parent-child relationship are all the following except
power
collectivist and individualist values can co-exist in the following ways
- additive
- conflicting
- functional dependence
- NOT imposition
what is part of the perspective on domains of socialization
control domain
theoretical perspectives on socialization
- parenting styles
- parenting practices
- domains of socialization
- NOT spiritual training
which parenting style is found in traditional cultures
traditional
which theorist is associated with the idea of the growth-producing effect of parental support for their children as they confront developmental crises
Erikson
the belief that children’s play is their work, meaning that it is through play that children learn, come from the social research of
Caroline Pratt
girls reared in which of the following homes are particularly at risk for early sexual behaviours
authoritarian
the process of emotional adjustment to divorce typically takes place
for 1-2 years during the period leading up to and immediately following parental separation and divorce
children whose parents divorce fare better when
they have close supportive relationships with both of their parents
according to Dorothy briggs, in creating an atmosphere of psychological safety, parents assist their children with the development of
self-esteem through building of their “house of self”
according to dreikurs, in their efforts to achieve a sense of belongingness, children often pursue __ secondary goals of misbehaviour
four
the most commonly used substances which compromise the health of the mother during pregnancy and affects the health of the developing fetus is prenatal exposure to
nicotine
parenting models
- Demanding parents
- Critical parents
- Over functioning parents - parent’s live life through kids
- Disengaged parents
- Ineffective parents
- Abusive parents
Equifinality and link to a program of discipline
Different pathways can lead to similar outcomes
structures of parenting
rigidity - extreme/inflexible structure (negative)
criticism - high/brittle structure (negative)
nonnegotiable rules - appropriate structure (constructive)
negotiable rules - flexible structure (constructive)
permissiveness - low in structure (negative)
abandonment - no structure, emotionally absent (negative)
intervention
-parent training programs aimed at higher risk families
○ Eg. Positive parenting program (Triple P)
○ Involves behavioural strategies, may also include communication strategies
○ Reinforcement (whether positive or negative) seeks to increase behaviour - increase adds something, decrease takes something away
prevention
-aimed at nonclinical families
○ Eg. Parent effectiveness training (PET)
○ Things are going well and you want to improve them even more
relationship based parenting programs
Preventative approach because you are stopping negative behaviours before they happen
democratic approaches to parenting
○ Encouragement
○ Setting appropriate limits
○ Practicing mutual respect for family members
○ Collective decision making
life script/plan
the consistent pattern of decision making by which people make choices regarding their behaviour
4 goals of misbehaviour
• Faulty conclusions about self, support faulty scripts that maintain conclusions
• Faulty script lead to need for belongingness
• Analyzing goals of children’s misbehaviour
○ Gaining attention - some like negative attention more than no attention, will do whatever it takes for attention, all behaviour is purposeful
○ Gaining (social) power
○ Gaining revenge
○ Displaying inadequacy - behave badly because they are told they are bad
• Goals of belongingness without misbehaviour - want to promote this
logical consequence
- put a punishment in place that was agreed on before hand
- Eg. You come home late from school = you have the meal cold or have to warm it up a second time, the family won’t wait for you to get home to start eating (This is an example of a consequence that isn’t harmful to the child) (going to bed without dinner is harmful)
- can use instead of rewards/punishment
increase parental effectiveness
- counsel
- actively listen
- use I messages
- negotiate, conflict resolution
Overall goal of parent effectiveness training
To reduce conflict in families by training parents in skills of communication, conflict resolution and problem-solving
problem ownership
- Need to sort out who has the problem when a problem arises
- Reduce areas where parents feel they must reject the child’s behaviour and parents must assume responsibility for solving their children’s troubles
- Guide parents in appropriately choosing the right technique for each situation
problem ownership situations
○ No one owns the problem - Technique - acceptance, passive listening ○ Child owns the problem - Technique - counseling, active listening ○ Parent own the problem - Technique - Confrontation, I-message ○ Rel. owns the problem - Technique - Problem solving
how to problem solve
- Define problem
- Generate possible solutions
- Evaluate the possible solutions
- Decide on the best solution
- Implement the decision
- Follow-up evaluate
Punishment (By Gordon)
• Fails to lead to permanent change in behaviour
• Side effects: anger acting out, harm to the parent-child relationship
• Alternatives to punishment
○ Participate rules: problem ownership
○ Active listening
○ I-messages
○ Conflict resolution
prevention strategies - psychological safety
-parents build a strong sense of self-worth in children
-house of self analogy - construct through interactions
○ words
○ body language
○ treatment by important others in their environment
○ express unconditional love
○ tell children they are competent
○ meet needs
○ keep promises
○ apologize
prevention strategies - encouragement
- help children meet goals
- boosts self esteem
- help them believe in themselves and their abilities
- fits with democratic model of parenting
- avoid value judgments of children
- focus on their feelings
- focus on process not outcome
- separate their worth from accomplishments and mistakes
- avoid attitudes and behaviours that discourage children
prevention strategies - motivate child’s compliance
- four pluses and a wish (smile, be relaxed, say their name, give them a compliment, then make the request)
- create motivations for compliance and cooperation
- more likely to inspire cooperation than a command
- children who feel respected are more motivated to comply
ineffective disciplinary methods
- Discipline or parental behaviour that is inconsistent
- Irritable, explosive practices
- Inflexible, rigid discipline
- Low parental supervision and minimal involvement
In addition to loving and nurturing children, which of the following should parents provide?
Structure and developmentally appropriate guidance
What is the purpose of reinforcement?
Increase desired behaviours
All of the following are reasons for misbehaviour
- Gaining attention
- Gaining social power
- Revenge
- Displaying inadequacy
- NOT Building trust
culture
○ Learned behaviour ○ Uses sets of symbols ○ Integrated into a logical manner ○ Materials are shared by members ○ Adapts and changes over time
important concepts of culture
- Enculturation
- Multicultural competence
- Cultural humility
- Subculture
- Acculturation
- Ethnocentrism
- Emic and etic
dichotomous cultural systems
West:
- child socialization individualistic
- more endorsement of tolerance/respect and unselfishness
East:
- child socialization collectivist
- more endorsement of independence
- less endorsement of obedience (not a popular socialization goal)
- more endorsement of determination/perseverance/hard work
models of cultural transmission - unidirectional
adult - encoded message - decoded message - internalized message in the child
models of cultural transmission - bidirectional
adult - encoded message - analyses message - synthesized (reconstructed) message - internalized (transformed) messed in the child
influences on cultural understanding
- Location
- Perception
- Language
- Interpretation
- Location + perception + language + interpretation =
- Use of language
- Understanding of concept based on cultural meaning
- Cultural application of concepts
parental beliefs and childrearing practices
- Influences on parent-child interactions
- Culture as a source of parental beliefs
- Child development as product of societal culture or collective culture
- People on cultural values
- Construal of the self as independent and interdependent
construal of the self - independent
- separate from others
- describe person according to internal attributes
- internal attributes remain stable
- focus on expression of internal attributes
- ego-focused stress emotions
- experts in the experience/expression of these emotions
- consistency between feeling and action
- motive to achieve
construal of the self - interdependent
- person in relation to others
- describe person according to specific behaviour related to a specific context
- learn about others
- report other focused emotions - empathy
European American mothers goals for their children
- consistent, love, safety
- build self esteem and self confidence
- create environment for learning/exploring
- instill values (respect, work, money)
- process feelings
- independence, individualism
- child-centered environment
- family and community importance
- have fun, make life enjoyable
immigrant Chinese mothers goals for their children
- love child, good relationship
- value education
- obedience, respect
- respect for others
- good personality, get along with others, adaptability
- good moral character
- indenpendent, self-reliant
- maintain Chinese culture
conditions shaping parenthood, family functions and relationships
○ Marriage
○ Common-law unions
○ Births
○ Divorce
Knowledge about and comfort with the implications of cultural differences refer to
multicultural competence
A focus on the physical survival and health of the child as a universal task of parenting is salient for parents in
Varied settings based on context and resources
Cultural influence(s) on parent-child relationships is regarded as
bidirectional
Dominant conceptual frameworks of development in children of colour
- Genetically deficit model
- Culturally deficit model
- Culturally diverse models
minority children
- Many of the same developmental tasks that all parents face
- Additional parenting tasks
- More difficult times facing the many tasks that they have as parents
- Inadequate financial resources
- Roles of education
- High proportion of single parents
- Grandparents as primary paren
task of racially socializing children
- Cultural Socialization
- Pluralism
- Preparation for Bias
- Promotion of Mistrust
racial socialization
- Proactive
- Protective
parental responsiveness/warmth
- parental warmth or supportiveness
- The extent to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and acquiesce to children’s special needs and demands
parental demandingness/control
- behavioural control
- The claims parents make on children to become integrated into the family whole, by their maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who disobey
indulgent/permissive parents
- high warmth, low control
- more responsive than demanding
- do not require mature behaviour
- avoid confrontation
authoritarian parents
- low warmth, high control
- highly demanding and directive, not responsive
- expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation
- expect their children to accept their judgments, values, and goals without questioning
authoritative parents
- high warmth, high control
- demanding and responsive
- disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive
- are more open to give and take with their children and make greater use of explanations (equally high in behavioral control as authoritarian parents)
uninvolved/neglectful parents
-low warmth, low control
authoritative/traditional parenting is associated with
- high warmth, high control
- positive child outcomes
permissive/indulgent parenting is associated with
- high warmth, low control
- negative child outcomes
authoritarian parenting is associated with
- low warmth, high control
- negative child outcomes
indifferent parenting is associated with
- low warmth, low control
- most negative child outcomes
overprotective parents cause children to
- acquiesce
- resist
cultural parenting practices
- Style between authoritative and authoritarian
- Strict, close and supportive
- Traditional parenting
- Racial socialization
- Consideration of unique protective factors
- Extended family relations
- Associated with positive outcomes
- Ethnic diversity
contextual influences on parenting patterns
- SES status
- parent vs child centred
- verbal/nonverbal interactions
- harsh discipline endorsement or not
- religion = more positive parenting patterns
- family of origin
- child characteristics
Parents in other cultures utilized a style of parenting that was wrongly labelled as which parenting pattern
authoritarian
Which of the following is vital in traditional cultures?
extended family support
Child-centered parenting is more associated with which of the following
high SES parents
one-parent families (OPF)
-Decreasing frequency
-created when
•Separation of couples
•A woman living with her biological child without the presence of father or father figure
•Widowed father or mother
•Adoption by single man or woman
-16% of families
-they are 78% female and 22% male
-never married parents = mostly the female
-divorced parents = mostly the female, 10-12% headed by male
-usually younger than 2-parent families
-fewer assets (Eg. High education, work experience and income)
-35-65% are below poverty level
-35-80% poor at some point
-less likely to be employed - young, few skills, less childcare support
-more family structure transitions
-never married mothers less likely to marry in future
divorce
-Divorce is one of the most difficult processes a family system can experience
-Short and long term effects on everyone in a family system
left off feb 6 lec pg 9
divorced fathers
- more depressed than divorced mothers
- leave children with feelings of abandonment
organization of a new single parent family system functionally or dysfunctionally depends on
ability to resolve issues in healthy ways
new single family takes form after divorce and assumes ___ degrees of effective functioning
higher
pain games
Cut down: discounting other parent to child Messenger: parent solicits a child to send messages to other parent
I spy: use child as source of information about other parent
Divorce is more harmful on development based on
Age of children•Child characteristics of children •Children’s perspective•Resilience
The initial stage - divorce
- Revelation
- Emotional and Behavioural Reaction
- Parental conflict - parents may be fighting more leading up to the separation
- Home environment - the stress at home may be very upsetting
- Mood
The transitional stage - divorce
•Time
•Emotions
•Characterized by restructuring process of
-New family system patterns
-Quality of life
-Establishing visitations routines with noncustodial parent
The re-stabilizationstage - divorce
- Time
- New life becomes normal
- At this stage, the family is used to all the changes that divorce created in their lives
- Emotions: Fear and anger are not as strong in this stage
oldest child in divorce/mothers
- the mother confides in them
- becomes more like a friend than a mother
- forced to be mature
- may experience competition, jealousy and conflict
fathers after divorce
- demand more independence from children
- gain more experience in child care, more authoritative
- concern about providing appropriate sex roles for girls
step families
-biological mother and step father more common than biological father and step father
blended families
- Lack of gradual addition of new members
- difficult timing
- Possible influence of previous relationships
- possibility of unrealistic expectations
- influence of emotions and perspective (loyalty conflicts)
- children’s attitudes (not accepting)
- role confusion (for step parent)
step-parent relationship can take ___ to form with child
1 year or longer
in Canada there are ___ parents and ___ children
older, fewer
deciding to parent in North America
- Economic Factor
- Structural Factors
- Psychosocial Considerations
- Social Changes
Early prenatal care
optimizes chance of delivering healthy full-term baby
pregnant mothers should take a multivitamin containing folic acid to
decrease the risk of a neural tube defect
two leading causes of preterm deliveries, and low-birth weight
Lack of prenatal care & poor diet
off-time
wait until you are 40 to have a child so the grandparents are 80, way off-time
kangaroo care
- Relationship built at this stage is a predictor of the relationship over time
- Higher survival rates for low-birth-weight and preterms
- Started in traditional culture and now it’s used in intensive care units
- Helps breathing, heart rate and calms
- Related to later positive interactions btwn infants/parents
low-birth-weight infants
- Causes anxiety and distress for parents
- Anxiety decreases after discharged from hospital
- No difference in parental self-efficacy in these parents and other parents
- Most have normal development, some require special care
transitioning to parenthood
○ Family/friendship networks increased w family, decrease w friends
○ Challenges related to co-parenting (Eg. Gender expectations)
○ Need for social support - from extended family members
○ Maternal grandparents usually involved more - mothers trust own mothers more than mother-in-laws (cross-culturally)
Parents of securely attached infants
○ More sensitive ○ Responsive ○ Hold their infants ○ Less intrusive ○ Less tense ○ Less irritable
babies sleep patterns
- Not until age 3-4 months can babies sleep more at night than during the day
- Can sleep through night at 6 months
playing with infants develops
○ Secure attachment
○ Parent-infant synchrony - respond to each other better
○ Infant self-regulation - increases their sense of predictability
○ Infant brain development - ability to read faces and tones of others
theorists ideas of cognitive development in infants/toddlers
- Piaget - interaction with objects good for cognitive development
- Vygotsky - guide/instruct infants/toddlers as the interact with people/objects
- Frequent interaction = good brain development
breastfeeding benefits
○ More iron, vit c and vit a than formula
○ Provides antibodies to protect against disease - mother had vaccination or illness herself
○ Fats and sugars in it make it more digestible than formula
○ Decreases common infectious disease, especially diarrhea
introducing solid foods
- Doctors recommend breast feeding for first 4-6 months
- Other foods can be added after, beginning with easily digestible cereal and banana
- Breat milk doesn’t have adequate iron, vit d and vit k for older babies
- Still breastfeed for 1 year after that
- Feed them a highly nutritious diet after weaned
