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midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Valence electrons are those in the outermost shell, or valence shell

A

The chemical behavior of an atom is mostly determined by the valence electrons

Elements with a full valence shell are chemically inert

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2
Q

carbon

A
  • Living organisms consist mostly of carbon-based compounds

* Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and varied molecules

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3
Q

Organisms consist mostly of carbon-based compounds (i.e. organic compounds)

A

Carbon can bond to four other atoms or groups of atoms, making a large variety of molecules possible.

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4
Q

hydroxyl

A

-OH

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5
Q

carbonyl

A

=C=O

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6
Q

carboxyl

A

-COOH

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7
Q

amino group

A

-NH2

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8
Q

sulfhydryl group

A

-SH

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9
Q

Phosphate group

A

—OPO3 2−

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10
Q

methyl group

A

ch3

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11
Q

methyl group

A

CH3

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12
Q

Dehydration reaction: synthesizing a polymer

A

Dehydration removes a water molecule, forming a new bond.

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13
Q

Hydrolysis: breaking down a polymer

A

Hydrolysis adds a water molecule, breaking a bond.

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14
Q

Carbohydrates (sugars)

A

functions: energy storage, structure

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15
Q

Covalent bonds between monosaccharides (5 or 6 carbon sugars) produce disaccharides

A

glucose + fructose = sucrose

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16
Q

Sugar is stored in the form of long polymers of glucose (starch and glycogen)

A

starch (plants)

glycogen (animals)

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17
Q

cellulose is a polymer of glucose

A

due to orientation of glucose in starch, humans can’t break down as sugar w b-amylase, but can w gut bacteria

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18
Q

Galactomannans are another type of polysaccharide

A

Guar Gum and Locust Bean Gum

long chain saccharides not based on glucose

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19
Q

Sources of polysaccharides used as thickening agents

A 
Acacia gum (gum arabic), 
Carrageenan, Guar gum, Tara gum, Carob bean
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20
Q

why is melted ice cream sticky?

A

added polysaccharides, add body and mouth feel bc ABSORB WATER which is why its in beans

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21
Q

lipids (fats and oils)

A

function: energy storage, membrane structure

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22
Q

Fats consist of glycerol linked to 3 fatty acids (triglyceride)

A

hallmark of lipids is hydrophobic. Hydrocarbon = Hydrogen and Carbon

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23
Q

the presence of double bonds determines the melting temperature of a fat

A

unsaturated fats have double bond kinks

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24
Q

saturated fat - no room to take up hydrogens, already full of carbons.

A

solid at room t - animals

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25
Q

unsaturated fat has kinks (double bonds) in chain so cant get close together until very cold

A

liquid at room t - plants

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26
Q

if you add hydrogens to unsaturated to remove double bonds, makes solid at room t

A

trans fats

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27
Q 
Unsaturated lipids (i.e. oils) are transformed into saturated lipid by the addition of hydrogen, which reduces double
bounds. Partial hydrogenation often leads to “trans-fats”.
A

can cause heart disease

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28
Q

phospholipids have

A

hydrophillic heads and hydrophobic fatty acid tails

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29
Q

Proteins

A

Function: control most cellular activities (enzymatic reactions) and are important for cell and tissue structure.

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30
Q

proteins based on amino acids

A

amino group, carboxyl group, and R group

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31
Q

20 amino acids

A

20 amino acids

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32
Q

nonpolar amino acids

A

only C and H, no O. hydrophobic - protein structure

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33
Q

polar amino acids

A

contain O, hydrophyllic

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34
Q

electrically charged amino acids

A

interact w water bc water has partial charges

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35
Q

Humans can synthesize 12 of the 20 amino acids.

The remaining 8 (“essential”) must be obtained from food.

A

vary in prevalence - corn vs beans

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36
Q

proteins are long chains

A

assembled by ribosome, peptide bond. You end up w amino end and carboxyl end

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37
Q

after protein synthesis, long chain w amino end and carboxyl end

A

assembles into 3d molecule, mediated by characteristics of proteins (polar/nonpolar/ionic/covlent bonds)

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38
Q

Proteins are polymers of amino acids, which fold into specific shapes as covalent, hydrogen, an ionic bonds form between their different amino acids.

A

the shape of a protein determines its function

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39
Q

Protein structure depends on pH

A

Protein structure depends on pH

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40
Q

Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

A

Function: information storage and protein production

41
Q

sugar-phosphate backbone

A

DNA consists of two strands, in opposite orientation, held together by weak (hydrogen) bonds which can be dissociated easily

42
Q

DNA different from RNA because

A

deoxyribose vs ribose sugar, uracil in RNA

43
Q

Bacterial cell (prokaryote)

A

Ribosomes
Plasma membrane Cell wall Capsule
Flagella
circular Bacterial chromosome

44
Q

eukaryotic cell size varies over several orders of magnitude

A

eukaryotic organelles are about the same size as bacteria

45
Q

how prokaryotic cell turn into eukaryotic cell

A

internal membrane systems came from invagination and evolution of plasma membrane

46
Q

mitochondria and chloroplasts come from

A

engulfment of other prokaryotes and evolution

47
Q

Membrane-bound compartments of a eukaryotic cell

A
  1. Information storage and processing
    - nucleus
  2. Protein production and processing
    - endoplasmic reticulum - golgi apparatus and associated vesicles
  3. Energy capture and utilization
    - mitochondria - chloroplasts
  4. Waste storage and removal
    - vacuole (plants) - lysosome (animals)
48
Q

photosynthesis happens in

A

chloroplasts

49
Q

cell respiration happens in

A

mitochondria

50
Q

difference between plant and animal cell

A

cell wall, chloroplasts, vacuole

51
Q

Nucleus

A

DNA, RNA production, processing, and export

52
Q

nuclear membrane (why exist?)

A

regulatory opportunities, protein production

53
Q

for RNA to be made:

A

proteins have to be transported through nuclear envelope through pore complexes

54
Q

ribosomes either free in cytoplasm or on rough ER.

A

ER is large vesicle, proteins in ER can either stay or be transported into Golgi via vesicles

55
Q

The Golgi apparatus modifies proteins and ships them to various places in the cell

A

(blebs off packaged proteins for shipment anywhere)

56
Q

mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar organelles due to 2 membranes - derived from same process of engulfment

A

Mitochondria have highly organized intermal membranes (involved in respiration), as well as their own DNA an protein synthesis machinery

57
Q

mitochondria have own DNA as remnant of engulfment of prokaryote

A

not all of the proteins necessary for mitochondrial function are in mitochondrial genome, instructions/information must come from nuclear DNA. How? migrated.

58
Q

Chloroplasts have highly organized internal membranes where are involved in photosynthesis

A

Electron Transport Chain?

59
Q

why do tomatoes turn from green to red?

A

chloroplasts –> chromoplast

chlorophylls -> lycopene

60
Q

Carotenoids are plastids like chloroplast

A

amyloplast (starch), elaioplast (oi), proteinoplast (protein)

61
Q

Cyanogenic glucosides in plants

A

Cassava (roots) Sorghum (roots) Almond (seeds) Cherry (seeds) Apple (seeds) Plums (seeds) Peaches (seeds) Apricots (seeds)

62
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Cytoplasmic architecture, intracellular transport, chromosome movement
• Microtubules • Microfilaments • Cell wall

63
Q

Cell wall

A

• Controls cell shape, plant rigidity • Regulates water uptake/loss • Regulates interactions of plants with other organisms

64
Q

plasma membrane

A

Compartment • Concentrates materials • Regulates entry and exit of substances • Regulates responses to external signals (receptionist)

65
Q

cholesterol

A

one end hydrophilic, one end hydrophobic

66
Q

Two major classes of proteins in milk

A

Casein –micelles (curds) Lacalbumin –soluble (whey)

67
Q

1 calorie (cal) =

A

amount of heat necessary to raise 1 ml of water, 1o C

68
Q

1 Calorie (Cal) =

A

1000 cal = 1 kcal

69
Q

LaVoisier 18th century father of chemistry

A

Measured heat production in a guinea pig by enclosing it in ice and measuring the amount that melted

70
Q

3 stages of respiration

A

3 stages of respiration
–Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate)
–Citric acid cycle (completes the breakdown of pyruvate)
–Oxidative phosphorylation (uses electrons from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to transform O2 into water)

71
Q

Molecules you need to remember (photosynthesis)

A

•ATP •NADH, FADH2 •Pyruvate (oxyloacetate, citrate) •Acetyl CoA •Carbon dioxide •Water •Oxygen

72
Q

Alcohol fermentation

A

pyruvate → ethanol carbon dioxide + ATP

73
Q

Lactic acid fermentation

A

pyruvate → lactic acid + ATP

74
Q

photosynthetic organisms

A 
Plants
Unicellular protist
Cyanobacteria
Purple sulfur bacteria
Multicellular alga
animal - e. chlororitca
75
Q

The stages of the Calvin cycle

A

The stages of the Calvin cycle
1. Carbon fixation: CO2 is added to a 5 carbon sugar (ribulose bis-phosphate), which is immediately transformed into two 3-
carbon sugars.
2. Reduction: High energy electrons are added to these 3-carbon
sugars, resulting in the production of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
3. Regeneration of ribulose bis-phosphate.

76
Q

The structure of chlorophyll

A

Light absorbing “head”

Tail attaches molecule to membrane.

77
Q

Dry conditions create problems

A

Photosynthesis needs CO2.
• Allowing CO2 to enter a leaf, also makes it possible for water to escape.
• How does a plant photosynthesize in hot, dry conditions?

78
Q

Some C4 plants have specialized bundle sheath cells

A

Some plants initially fix carbon into a 4-carbon organic acid and then transfer it to the Calvin cycle

79
Q

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)

A

Total amount of CO2 that is fixed by plants through photosynthesis = energy captured

80
Q

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

A

Gross primary productivity minus the energy used by plants for their own growth and development (respiration)

81
Q

NPP = GPP - R

A

Units: biomass = g/m2/yr

energy = calories/m2/yr

82
Q

human appropriation of Net Primary Productivity (HANPP)

A

Food: plants, animal products Fiber: construction, paper, clothing Fuel: wood, oil, gas

83
Q

Alternatives to fossil fuels

A

• Hydroelectric • Nuclear • Geothermal • Solar • Wind • Biofuels

84
Q

The motivation for biofuels

A

• Energy security (only a few places in the world produce oil)
• “Peak oil”, i.e. long term availability of fossil fuels • Environmental degradation • Economics (the cost of importing oil is a large
fraction of the budget of many countries)

85
Q

Types of biofuels

A

Alcohol • Biodiesel (oils) • Gas (methane)

86
Q

The ethanol fuel energy balance

energy output/energy input

A

Corn (U.S.A.) 1.3

Sugar cane (Brazil) 8

87
Q

sources of plant oils

A

canola, algae

88
Q

• Plant and animal oils are too viscous to be used as vehicle fuel.

A

• They must be “trans-esterified”

89
Q

Methane (natural gas) production

A

Anaerobic fermentation by methanogenic bacteria

C6H12O6 → 3CO2 + 3CH4

90
Q

DNA replication

A

parent molecule – separation of strands – daughter DNA molecules each consisting of one parental strand and one new strand

91
Q

The chromosome number problem:

A

organisms that reproduce sexually must find a way to reduce the chromosome number in their gametes by half, to prevent an exponential increase in chromosome number.

92
Q

Meiosis produces genetic novelty

A
  1. Independent assortment

2. Crossing over

93
Q

Independent assortment

A

Two equally probable arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I

94
Q

Original definition of “gene”

A

“special conditions, foundations and determiners which are present [in the gametes] in unique, separate and thereby independent ways [by which] many characteristics of the organism are specified”

95
Q

New definition gene:

A

The gene is a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products.

96
Q

Gene

A

The DNA sequence required to synthesize a product (protein or RNA) important for the function of a cell.

97
Q

Some important RNAs

A

Ribosomal RNA Transfer RNA

microRNA

98
Q

DNA sequences can be broadly classified as:

A
  1. Coding sequence (i.e. sequence that actually produces something)
  2. Transcribed, non-coding sequences 1.Regulatory sequences
99
Q

The value of punctuation

A

• The “punctuation marks”in DNA are sequences that are recognized by proteins that regulate the transcription or the processing of the RNA produced by that DNA sequence.
A gene encompasses both the sequence that produces the final product, and the regulatory sequences required to produce that product.
• A change in the sequence of the coding region or the regulatory elements of a gene can have significant effects on its function.

bio 101 midterm 1 (1 decks)

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