midterm 1

Question 1

Byzantine empire

Answer 1

• Thought of themselves as Roman, considered themselves to be the one and only true heirs of Roman civilization.
• 395 CE
• Byzantine and Sasanian were rivals, and were often in conflict with each other. Conflict was so all consuming that it weakened their respective empires.
• Spoke Greek and used Roman law to maintain a high degree of law. Diverse cosmopolitan society unified by a common language and shared legal system.

Question 1

Fertile Crescent

Answer 1

• The Fertile Crescent was a cradle of civilization starting around 10,000 BCE, with significant developments occurring from the Neolithic period through ancient Mesopotamian empires such as Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia.
• The Fertile Crescent is considered the birthplace of Middle Eastern culture and civilization. Early innovations in agriculture, government, and writing in this region had a lasting impact on the Middle East and beyond, shaping trade, law, and cultural heritage that are still influential today.

Question 2

tinian I

Answer 2

• r. 527-565 CE
• Represents a high point in the empire, and is known for his construction of Aya Sofia (hagia sofia)
• Famous for his intolerant religious policies, like expelling pagan philosphers from their academy. Led to a polarized atmosphere where religious identity was most important when portraying oneself.

Question 3

Sassanian Empire

Answer 3

• founded 224 CE
• Centralized government which worked hard to keep its unruly and powerful aristocracy under control. Characterized by a highly mobile cavalry army. Zoroastrianism was the state religion.
• When they were defeated, much of their infastructure was integrated into the islamic empire

Question 4

Khusrau II

Answer 4

• Ruled 560-628 CE
• Marked a high point in Sassanian rule
• conquered anatolia and alexandria
• Know less about his control because the empire was completely taken over by arabs in 650 and no one was left with the interest to preserve its legacy/history.

Question 5

Ahura Mazda

Answer 5

• Zoroastrian god, created the universe and works for justice and good
• Establishes the tradition of a monotheist religion, monotheist god. Also has the first recorded judgement day story with Ariman vs Ahura Mazda, and how in the end, forces of good will prevail and evil humans will be judged and punished.
• Also starts the religious idea that human beings have free will to make their own choices over the course of their lifetimes.

Question 6

Lakhmid

Answer 6

• Sassanian client kingdom, organized in some ways by arab customs. A confederation of tribes, and sometimes had a strong centralized government modeled on sassanian practices. When that happened, they were powerful enough to interfere in sassanian succession disputes.
• They spoke arabic, accredited with developing the arabic script, and were, like their arabian counterparts, patrons of poetry

Question 7

Ghassanid

Answer 7

• Client kingdom of the byzantine empire
• Arab, and christian. Ruled by tribesmen who had immigrated from Yemen to southern syria. Had a love of poetry, the king was elected by the tribal confederation heads.
• Served as a significant example of long standing interaction between arabs and the byzantine world. Their christian identity and political role in the region left a historical memory within islamic culture helped shape early islamic understanding of arab identity and political alliances

Question 8

Muallaqat/hanging poem

Answer 8

• These poems were the seven best poems at the time, and were so valued they were hung in the Kaaba. They were seen as the highest representations of Arab culture.

Question 9

Khadija

Answer 9

• Wife of Muhammad, successful business woman.
• supported him from the earliest stages of his prophethood
• birthed 7 kids for him

Question 10

Kaaba

Answer 10

• The Kaaba is a sacred structure located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Kaaba is considered the holiest site in Islam, and Muslims around the world pray in its direction (the qibla). It’s central to the rituals of the Hajj, the pilgrimage every Muslim aims to complete once in their lifetime.
• The Kaaba was central to Arabian polytheistic practices until it was reestablished as a monotheistic place of worship by the Prophet Muhammad in 630 CE, after his conquest of Mecca.
• Its role in the Hajj and daily prayers helped unify the early Muslim community, reinforcing the importance of Mecca in Islamic identity and religious practice.

Question 10

Jabal al-Nur

Answer 10

mountain where the cave where he would fast and pray

Question 11

Yathrib

Answer 11

• What would become medina
• location of an arab tribe, asked the Prophet to come and settle a dispute.

Question 12

Sirat Rasul Allah

Answer 12

• the Life of the Messenger of God. earliest surviving example of compilations regarding the life of the prophet from the historical memory of his companions.
• Compiled by ibn ishaq, it only exists in a revised edition by ibn hisham. this document, together with the quran, is the most important source of information on the life of Muhammad

Question 13

Rashidun Caliphs

Answer 13

• Rashidun means rightly guided caliphs. It is a title held by the first four caliphs after the prophet muhammads death, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and lastly Ali.
• This period lasts rougly around 30 years, from 632 to 661 CE
• These caliphs were decided upon in a time of uncertainty, and were chosen based on their personal relationships with the prophet, and their perceived religious right to rule
• These caliphs mark the first way in which the muslim people picked their leaders, a rough draft of what would come.
• When they were chosen to rule, these decisions were made in shura councils. Instead of tribal elites, it was muslim leaders from new social categories

Question 14

Amir al Muaminin
(commander of the faithful)

Answer 14

• A term dating from the 5th century, referring to the first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar
• The success of these first two caliphs was based on their personal knowledge of the men they lead and the prophet himself. They know an easy clear link of what came before and their rule. Their rule was also based on their trust and their following of the Sunnah. These two leaders, like the prophet, were able to combine religious and political authority.
• One title we believe they used for themselves was ‘the commander of the faithful’ Only later were they referred to as caliph(deputy)

Question 15

Shura

Answer 15

• The shura was a council of significant figures in the umma(muslim community), and was responsible for the selection of the early caliphs during the Rashidun era.
• a traditional consultative council, draws on this deep history into the pre islamic past where tribes made big decisions at these councils attended by the leading males
• demonstrates the ties that early islam held to arab tradition

Question 16

Ansar

Answer 16

• ## The inhabitants of medina who invited muhammad to come to yahtrub(medina) and then believed in his message and converted to islam(second converts)

Question 17

Muhajirun

Answer 17

• [first converts of islam] the ones who undertook the Hijrah with Muhammad. Their loyalty and sacrifices were rewarded in terms of status. They left a lot behind in Mecca, and in turn they are rewarded with the greatest portion of tribute and booty during the age of conquest
• Important for a multitude of reasons. being the companions of the prophet, their words and experiences were considered just as sacred as his.
• Being apart of the Muhajirun also meant that you had the most authority to be a leader during the rashidun period/early periods of islam post muhammads death

Question 18

Fitna

Answer 18

Religious civil wars/rebellions, first one occured during Ali’s rule.

Question 19

Muawiya

Answer 19

• He was the governor of syria during Ali’s caliphate, and a relative of uthman
• Ali is assassinated during his rule, and in the mess that follows, muawiyah steps into the power vacuum and declares himself caliph. Gradually over time the dominant interests come to accept his leadership, and he is able to exert enough power and authority. The center for him is in damascus.
• Why do they accept him, uthman’s nephew? Because he represents the old meccan elite, meaning the old social hierarchy is coming back to arabia, and others just need order to come back and stop the chaos.
• Is also the founder of the first dynasty/next reign after rashidun caliphs, the umayyad dynasty

Question 20

Abd al-Malik

Answer 20

• Cousin of Muawiya, takes over the Umayyad dynasty after Muawiyas son is overthrown.
• Born in medina, Malik takes power from 685 - 705, and made some major changes to how rulers of the islamic empire acted.
• Malik started a standing army of arab soldiers, and his army gradually takes control of syria, then iraq, then in 692 mecca and medina.
• Noteable for a few other reasons: Called himself Khalifat Allah, constructed dome of the rock, says ‘I am the prophets successor who combines religious and political authority within himself.’ He also describes himself as gods shadow on the earth
• Lastly, key historians of the period argue that malik is the founder of the first distinctively islamic state.

Question 21

Khalifat Allah
(gods deputy)

Answer 21

• Stands for gods deputy. Its a term adopted by Abd al-Malik, the second ruler of the Umayyad dynasty.
• Establishes the ruler as both a religious and political figure, with him saying ‘ I am the prophets successor who combines religious and political authority within himself.’ He also describes himself as gods shadow on the earth

Question 22

Khalifat Rasul allah

Answer 22

• meaning “Successor to the Messenger of God,” is a title adopted by the early leaders of the Muslim community following the Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. This title, commonly shortened to Caliph, was used to designate the head of the Muslim community and emphasize continuity with Muhammad’s leadership, though not as a prophet, but as a steward of Islamic governance and guidance.
• Basically the same as the rashidun caliph definition

Question 23

Qubbat al-Sakhra(dome of the rock)

Answer 23

• One of the things that malik does is build an incredible and important symbol, the qubbat al-sakhra(dome of the rock). It is build on the location of the jewish temple in jerusalem, a highly favoured location in the physical topography of the region, chose to build it not in damascus where he governed but in jerusalem. The structure is an octagonal building which features two walkways arranged around a sacred stone. It is decorated in a beautiful and developed artform of the byzantines, lots of mosaics.
• Demonstrates the power that malik was excerting over other religions. By building this structure here, he is basically saying that islam is the one true religion
• On top of that, this building indicates the formation of a newly confident and distinctly islamic identity for the first time that we can document.

Question 24

Ghadir Khumm
(prophets last words)

Answer 24

• Ghadir Khumm refers to an event that took place in 632 CE, shortly before the Prophet Muhammad’s death. According to historical accounts, Muhammad delivered a sermon at a location known as Ghadir Khumm, where he declared, “For whomever I am his leader (mawla), Ali is his leader.” This statement has been widely interpreted, with differing views on its implications, especially regarding the leadership of the Muslim community.
• The muslim community selected other close companions of the Prophet muhammad to be their leaders; in the shi’i narrative, these choices were made in error, and the men (abu bakr, the others) were called usurpers, and those who supported them were sinners acting against god.
• Foundation for the group of Ali’s follwers called the shi’at ali

Question 25

Shiat Ali

Answer 25

• Party of Ali. They were a islamic sectarian group which followed Ali based off a story of the prophet muhammad basically giving him his blessing to be the next leader.

Question 26

Mahdi

Answer 26

• A part of Shi’i messianism in the 5th century
• The belief that there will be a messiah that will come and establish order and justice
• All this unrest, the growing sense of injustice made claims of islamic messianism attractive during this period
• There are sayings of the prophet that say a mahdi would return to earth and establish justice
• Belief in thes mahdi results in revolts, like mukhtars revolt in Kufha. His revolt was on behalf of another son of ali, Muhammad ibn al-Hanifiyaa.

Question 27

Ahl al-Bayt

Answer 27

• Essentially describes the family of the prophet. The term came to describe the new elites of the Islamic community. All communities agreed that the family of the prophet was due religious respect, but there were serious disagreements about how to define the family of the prophet, and what form the deference should take.
• This is everyone descended from the great grandfather of the prophet muhammad. Initially, deference is just given to everyone, but it gets unruly. Ahl al-Bayt comes to refer only to the descendants of Ali.
• At first, could be from any of Ali’s wives. After it gets unruly, only Fatima counts.

Question 28

Khurasan

Answer 28

Let’s examine Khurasan through the theme of the important role played by historic memory in Islamic culture. The region of Khurasan, encompassing parts of present-day Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, played a pivotal role in shaping Islamic history, especially during the early Islamic conquests, the Abbasid Revolution, and the development of Persian-Islamic culture. ### Who? Khurasan was historically inhabited by diverse peoples, including Persians, Turks, and Arabs, and became an early center for both political and intellectual movements in the Islamic world. It attracted scholars, theologians, and soldiers who helped establish Islamic influence and contributed to the cultural and political dynamism of the region. ### What? Khurasan is particularly remembered for its role in the Abbasid Revolution (747–750 CE), which overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate and established the Abbasid Caliphate. The region’s support for the Abbasids was instrumental in transforming Islamic governance and marked the beginning of a new era in Islamic history that was more inclusive of Persian and other non-Arab influences. It also became a center for Islamic scholarship, Sufi mysticism, and the flourishing of Persian-Islamic culture. ### When? Khurasan became prominent in Islamic history during the mid-8th century with the Abbasid Revolution and continued to be a significant center of culture, scholarship, and military power in subsequent centuries. The region’s influence persisted through the rise of Persianate dynasties like the Samanids and later Seljuk and Timurid empires, solidifying its legacy in the Islamic world. ### Where? Khurasan encompasses a large territory in northeastern Iran, as well as parts of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Its strategic location along the Silk Road allowed it to become a vibrant cultural crossroads, where ideas, people, and goods from the Islamic world, Central Asia, and the Far East intersected. ### Why? Khurasan’s significance lies in its support for the Abbasid movement, which promised a more inclusive and just society that appealed to Persian Muslims disaffected by Umayyad policies. It became a symbol of resistance to centralized power in Damascus and a supporter of Islamic values, scholarship, and culture that were deeply influenced by Persian heritage. ### Significance in Historic Memory The memory of Khurasan holds a profound place in Islamic culture as a region associated with transformative events and cultural synthesis. The historic memory of the Abbasid Revolution and the flourishing of Islamic-Persian culture in Khurasan symbolizes the adaptability and resilience of Islamic civilization. Khurasan’s legacy continues to inspire Islamic thought, especially in the realms of governance, cultural integration, and scholarly achievement, and serves as a reminder of the role that non-Arab regions played in enriching Islamic civilization. This memory is celebrated in Islamic history as a testament to the enduring power of Khurasan’s contributions, from scholarship to military strength, to foster a more pluralistic and culturally diverse Islamic world. The historical memory of Khurasan as a place of intellectual and political revolution continues to influence Islamic thought, demonstrating how regional contributions have shaped and sustained Islamic civilization across diverse contexts.

Question 29

Mawla/Mawali
(client)

Answer 29

It is very clear that muslims according to western scholars that muslims initially discouraged conversion, probably because the head tax that non muslims paid was an important part of state revenue, but also because they wanna keep themselves separate. Despite the universal message contained within the quran, western scholars argue that arabs thought of islam in very different terms
They argue that it was initially perceived as monotheism for arabs, and they saw themselves as superior to the people they conquered, and that inferior people can continue practicing their inferior monotheism
i. Non-Muslims attracted to garrison cities
ii. Gradually able to become Muslim through “adoption” into Arab tribes as second- class clients(mawlah)

Question 30

Bayt al-Hikma

Answer 30

Let’s explore the Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) through the theme of the diversity of expression of religious cultures in Islamic civilization. This celebrated institution in Baghdad was a beacon of intellectual and cultural exchange, showcasing how Islamic society embraced and synthesized knowledge from various traditions. ### Who? The Bayt al-Hikma was established in the 9th century by the Abbasid caliphs, particularly under Caliph Harun al-Rashid and later expanded by his son, Caliph al-Ma’mun. It attracted scholars from diverse backgrounds, including Muslims, Christians, Jews, and others, creating a center for learning and cross-cultural exchange. ### What? Bayt al-Hikma was a major library and research institution where scholars translated and preserved works from Greek, Persian, Indian, and other traditions. These scholars worked on translating, studying, and expanding upon texts in philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and the sciences, contributing to what is often called the Islamic Golden Age. ### When? Founded in the early 9th century, Bayt al-Hikma flourished during the Abbasid period, particularly between the 9th and 10th centuries. It became a symbol of intellectual achievement until its decline following the Mongol invasion of Baghdad in 1258. ### Where? Bayt al-Hikma was located in Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and a cosmopolitan hub of trade, culture, and learning. Baghdad’s strategic location made it a natural meeting place for scholars from across the Islamic world and beyond, facilitating intellectual and cultural exchanges. ### Why? The Bayt al-Hikma was established to preserve, expand, and adapt knowledge from various cultures to meet the intellectual and practical needs of the Islamic world. It demonstrated a commitment to valuing knowledge regardless of its origin, embodying the Quranic encouragement to seek understanding and wisdom. This open approach enabled Islamic scholars to innovate and make significant contributions across numerous fields. ### Significance in Religious Diversity Bayt al-Hikma exemplifies the diversity of religious and cultural expression in Islamic civilization, as it welcomed scholars of various faiths and backgrounds to collaborate and share knowledge. This inclusive intellectual environment allowed Islamic scholars to build on Greek, Persian, and Indian knowledge, integrating it with Islamic philosophy and values to create unique contributions to fields like medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. The legacy of Bayt al-Hikma demonstrates how Islamic civilization valued and synthesized external knowledge, fostering a cultural richness that was receptive to diverse perspectives. Its memory continues to inspire respect for learning, open-mindedness, and cross-cultural understanding in Islamic culture, highlighting the tradition of intellectual diversity and cultural synthesis within the broader Islamic heritage.

Question 31

Ijma

Answer 31

• One of the ways in which fatwa was considered viable to use, meaning: the consensus of the community
• they have all this internally contradictory material, how do they know what to follow? Belief is that over time, muslims will eventually agree what is right. An example is the leadership of abu bakr; it was unclear who the prophets successor should be, so when abu bakr rose to power it was an example of ijma and the community consensus. Not everyone agreed, but it was mostly agreed upon.
• Sunni’s emphasize this way of understanding religious past. For these muslims, legitimacy does not lie within the prophets family, but instead within the community itself which expresses its will through the consensus of the believers. For sunni scholars and the muslims who begin to follow them, although individuals scholars will disagree with eachother, overtime the weight of the majority of muslims agree becomes clear

Question 32

Sahaba
(companions of the prophet)

Answer 32

• term referring to the companions of the Prophet Muhammad—those who personally knew, followed, and supported him during his lifetime. They played crucial roles in spreading Islam, preserving Muhammad’s teachings, and contributing to the early development of Islamic society.
• personal relationships were key to this islamic law. Informal information was key to passing on quranic law, which was achieved in informal private settings, like in a families home. Still, even at the time of the umayyad revolution, this stuff is still not being written down yet. Everything at this period are being transmitted orally.
• The Sahaba refers not only to the prophets companions, but also to their sayings and teachings that are passed down.
• Due to these informal transmissions of quranic law, the sahaba and taba’in were significant for the average superficial converted soldier on the frontier, and also for sincere non converts to islam

Question 33

Taba’iin
(Descendants of the companions)

Answer 33

• A term referring to the descendants of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad—those who personally knew, followed, and supported him during his lifetime. They played crucial roles in spreading Islam, preserving Muhammad’s teachings, and contributing to the early development of Islamic society.
• personal relationships were key to this islamic law. Informal information was key to passing on quranic law, which was achieved in informal private settings, like in a families home. Still, even at the time of the umayyad revolution, this stuff is still not being written down yet. Everything at this period are being transmitted orally.
• The tabs’in refers not only to the prophets companions, but also to their sayings and teachings that are passed down.
• Due to these informal transmissions of quranic law, the taba’in and sahaba were significant for the average superficial converted soldier on the frontier, and also for sincere non converts to islam
• integral to the formation and preservation of the historical memory of islam and islamic tradition

Question 34

Halqa

Answer 34

• Islamic scholarship was based on oral transmission of reports about early islamic history, and these learning sessions took place at the Halqa (study circles in mosques)
• Within the Halqa’s, the islamic scholars would teach their students hadiths, backed up by a list of the one they heard it from and those that preceeded them
• Important because it shows the importance of oral tradition within islam, and also because Halqas led to the development of the five schools of islamic law.
• The companions, and the reports they transmitted became increasingly important over time as a source of authentically islamic practice

Question 35

Procopius, The Reconquest of Africa

Answer 35

Broad overview: essentially a rebirth of roman values, seen through belisarious’ parade through constantinople and his appearance before justinian I, and the wealth from his conquests being given out in plenty.
Another thing of note is Glerimic saying “Vanity of vanities, all is vanity.” Essentially stating how this power and procession is nothing but a show, and the crown and jewels and everything means nothing
Procopius makes clear that the triumph of Belisarius was modeled on “ancient manner” customs, showing Justinian’s desire to revive Rome’s former glory
This primary source essentially provides insights into the Byzantine strategies, challenges faced by the army, and the political situation in the region. Procopius combines historical detail with vivid storytelling, capturing the dynamics of Byzantine expansion and conflicts with other powers.
It gives further details into Justinian I as a leader and his values, thus showcasing his militaristic desire for expansion and to attain valuables: “thrones of gold… much jewelry made of precious stones, and golden drinking cups”

Question 36

Ode of Labid

Answer 36

Showcases the arabic nomadic tradition and lifestyle through mentions of tents and living with nature, as well as the hunting near the end. Also how the pre-islamic arabic tribes were deeply entwined with their natural surroundings and the accompanying wildlife.
The source is also incredibly poetic, marking the cultural origins of the islamic poetic tradition, as well as showcasing how the arabic language is inherently poetic in its prose.
Important due to the fact that even once arabic people started settling down, these tribes were viewed as the root of arabic culture, so much so that even the prophet muhammad went and lived with one of these tribes as a child to become a true arabic man. The idea of being a client stems from this sort of cultural exchange, continuing on into the post-conquering islamic period (after abu bakr and umar).
The ode celebrates Labid’s tribe, the Amir, and praises their valor, resilience, and generosity. This emphasis on tribal honour reflects the values of pre-Islamic Arabia, where loyalty to one’s tribe was paramount.
These poems capture the rich pre-Islamic arabian culture and are perfect depictions of the pre-Islamic world traditions and values.
They share wisdom and lifes glory through poetic rhetoric
These poems have influenced Arabian culture and continue to do so nowadays.

Question 37

Excerpt from Sirat Rasul Allah

Question 38

Sura 1, the Quran

Question 39

Sura 19, the Quran

Question 40

Pact of Umar

Question 41

Selexction from Al-Tabari’s History of Prophets and Kings

Question 42

inscriptions from the Dome of the Rock

Question 43

Sermon of Lady Zeynab in the Court of Yazid

Question 43

Ziyad ibn abihi Inaugural Speech

Question 44

Al-Tanukhi, A wavier and a qadi and Acts of prodigality

Question 45

Yaqut al-Rumi, Descriptions of the City of Baghdad