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Primate Behavior > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is behavior?

A

Behavior is doing stuff. Eating, sleeping, keeping safe, interacting with conspecifics (other members of the same species).

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2
Q

Who was Niko Tinbergen?

A

He was a dutch biologist and ornithologist who learned about behavioral principals.

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3
Q

What were Niko Tinbergen’s 4 questions?

A

Across Time (how trait came to be)
Development - how does behavior develop?
Evolution - how did behavior evolve through evolutionary history?

At a specific time
Mechanism- how does behavior work?
Function - why might behavior be adaptive?

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4
Q

What are proximate and ultimate levels?

A

Proximate - How? (Mechanism and development)

Ultimate- Why? (Evolution and function)

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5
Q

What is another way of thinking about behavior?

A

Causes and consequences.

Causes- Evolution, Mechanism, Development.

Consequences- Functions.

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6
Q

Who is B.F. Skinner and what did he do?

A

B.F. Skinner was a behaviorist that proposed that all animals were capable of producing the same behaviors if properly trained (equipotentiality). –> Eg Pavolov’s dogs.

They believed that animal behavior could be studied in a lab.

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7
Q

What is habituation?

A

Habituation is when humans immerse themselves within a group of a different species and the species learns to accept the humans as part of their environment.

Kinji Imanashi started this method of studying primates when he went to Kojiishima Island tu study japanese macaques.

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8
Q

Who were the first people to study primates in the wild?

A

Louis Leakey sent three women into the wild to observe primates and report their findings. They helped learn what primatology was and changed perception of nature of these primates.

Jane Goodall –> sent to study chimpanzees in Tanzania. She was the first to discover that chimps can use tools (huge discovery).

Dian Fossey –> sent to study mountain gorillas in Rwanda. In order to do habituation she had to intrigue them (make them curious so they would come close to them).

Birute Gladikas –> studies orangutans in Indonesia.

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9
Q

How were early primatology studies structured?

A
  • Very descriptive (journal like)
  • Subjective (observer judged what was relevant/important)
  • Obvious behaviors would get more attention.
  • No rates could be calculated
  • Change is hard to establish
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10
Q

Systematic data collection

A

Jeanne Altmann introduced ideas about how to standardise data collection. She started the Amboseli Baboon project in Kenya.

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11
Q

What are the pros and cons of studying primates in captivity?

A

pros
- high internal validity –> control of other variables that can affect behavior
- allows to study what they think or believe (primate cognition)

cons
- low external validity –> no predation, no competition for resources, no exposure to natural disasters, don’t have to look for food or shelter.
- may start to mimic human behavior
- can’t measure fitness
- doesn’t fully capture behavioral variations
- they change/ limite social groups
- some primates may not survive to being kept in captivity
- limits interactions with their habitats (ecological level –> plasticity, acclimation variation. evolutionary level –> evolved differences that define a species/population/ group)

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12
Q

What is fitness?

A

Fitness is a measure of how much genetic material an individual leaves behind. Measured by number of offspring that live to reproduce.

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13
Q

What are some challenges to long term field studies?

A
  • Habituation
  • Recognizing individuals
  • Interobserver reliability
  • Impossible to have controls
  • Difficult to manage such high volumes of data
  • Funding cycles are shorter than time needed to complete study (lifespan of species).
  • Humans might bring disease
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14
Q

Benefits of long term field studies?

A
  • Can document entire life cycle
  • Can contribute to conservation
  • Employ many local people + transfer skills to them
  • Promotes tourism
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15
Q

What is the difference between internal and external validity?

A

Validity refers to whether or not the the results are meaningful and trustworthy

Internal Validity –> how well the study is conducted

External Validity –> how applicable the findings are to the real world

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16
Q

What are the 4 different traditions for primate studies?

A

Anthropology
Psychology
Biology
Conservation

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17
Q

which are common characteristics of primates?

A
  • Hands and feet are adapted for grasping (flat nails, dexterous hands, opposable big toes and thumbs)
  • Good Vision (eyes forward, stereoscopic vision (brain integrates vision from both eyes))
  • Mono, bi and tri chromatism
  • Poor sense of smell (flat faces, nose doesn’t stick out)
  • Generalized dentition (not specialized, old world primates –> 32 teeth (2132), new world primates –> 36 teeth (2133))
  • Generalized bodies
  • High encephalization quotient (brains are bigger than expected for body mass)
  • Slower life histories (small litters, longer pregnancies, long juvenile period)
  • Most primates are social
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18
Q

What is a life history

A

The study of the patterns of growth, reproduction, and lifespan within different primate species

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19
Q

Examples of exceptions to common characteristics

A

Aye-aye–> nocturnal, solitary, smell reliant

spider monkey –> 4 digits (fingers)

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20
Q

What us a taxon?

A

Any grouping where the members are more closely related to their members of the group than to non-members.

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21
Q

What are monophyletic and paraphyletic taxa?

A

Monophyletic –> all descended from the same ancestor.

Paraphyletic –> all descended from the same ancestor but not all descendant groups are included.

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22
Q

What classifications comes after order?

A

order –> suborder 1 –> suborder 2 –> Infraorder –> Superfamily –> family –> subfamily

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23
Q

What are the characteristics of Strepsirrhines?

A
  • Long snouts
  • Wet noses
  • Divided Upper lips
  • Nocturnal
  • Eyes to the sides of the head
  • Eyes reflect light
  • post orbital bar
  • Grooming claw
  • dental tooth comb
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24
Q

What are the characteristics of families within Lemuroidea?

A

Prosimians–>Stepsirhines–>Lemuriformes–>Lemuroidea

  • Lemuridae –> diurnal + single offspring
  • Lepilemuridae –> medium size, nocturnal, herbivorous, single offspring, only 1 genus, self anoiting (behavior of rubbing material or foreign substance on the bodies)
  • Cheirogaleidae –> Nocturnal, smallest primates, omnivores, torpor (state of mental inactivity) and hibernation, 3 nipples
  • Indriidae –> largest lemur, diurnal, no tails, vertical clinging and leaping , single offspring, sometimes no tail.
  • Daubentoniidae –> woodpecker niche, largest brain to body ratio, only species = Aye aye.
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25
Q

What are some general Haplorrhine characteristics?

A
  • Short snouts
  • Dry noses
  • Single upper lip
  • Diurnal
  • Eyes in front of head
  • Eyes lack a tapetum (reflective layer in choroid of eyes )
  • Post orbital closure
  • No grooming claw
  • No dental tooth comb
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26
Q

What are the families in Tarsoidea?

A

Anthropoids–>Haplorhines–>Tarsiformes–> tarsoidea–> tarsiidae

  • Only completely carnivorous (mainly insectivores) primate
  • Elongated tarsus (ankle bone)
  • Single offspring
  • Controversy about how social they are
  • Lake tapetum
  • Nocturnal (eyes are bigger than brain)
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27
Q

What are the characteristics of Platyrrhines?

A

New world monkeys

  • Prehensile tails (use to grab things, swing) –> only eveolved in american monkeys

-

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28
Q

What are some theories explaining how monkeys got to south america?

A

1) Most accepted theory –> they floated in huge mat of vegetation (like small islands) before the continents separated so much.

2) They descended from north american primates, not african primates.

3) They were there much earlier, but we haven’y found their fossils.

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29
Q

What is adaptive radiation?

A

Adaptive radiation is an evolutionary process where a single ancestral species rapidly diversifies into a multitude of new species, each with different adaptations that allow them to exploit various ecological niches,

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30
Q

Explain evolution by natural selection

A

Evolution just means change through time. Specifically, change in the gene pool of a population over time. Natural selection refers to the process by which better adapted individuals in the population survive and produce more fertile offspring.

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31
Q

What are some characteristics of the super family Ceboidea?

A

Ceboidea–> Pithecidae (family)

  • Callicebinae(sub family) –> Titi monkeys, monogamous, diurnal, eat fruit, linsects, leaves, birds’ eggs
  • Pithecinae –>Ukari, Saki, extremly short tailes, seed predators, red faces (might be sexual signaling)

Ceboidea–> Atelidae (family)

  • Atelinae (sub family) –> spider monkeys, prehensile tails, loss of thumb (to swing more effectively), branchiators
  • Allouattinae–> Howley monkeys, prehensile tail, enlarged hyoid bone (bone in throat that helps them howl to locate other members of the group)

Ceboidea–> Cebidae

  • Cebinae–> Capuchins, prehensile tail, very smart (apes of the new world), use tools (use rocks to crack nuts)
  • Aotinae–> Owl monkey, only nocturnal monkey, monochromat, no prehensile tail
  • Saimirinae–> squirrel monkey, live in largest groups (up to several hundreds), no prehensile tails, common pets (bad)
  • Callitrichinae –> Marmosets and Tamarins, give birth to twins, cooperative breeders (other members of the group help take care of babies), sometime ployandrous (groups of 1 female and many males), claws, no tail
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32
Q

What are the characteristics of Cercopithecoidea?

A

Cercopithecoidea–>Cercopithecidae

  • Cercopithecinae –> almost all live in africa (except macaques), have sexual swellings, most terrestrial monkeys, omnivorous, cheek pouches
  • Colobinae –> almost all live in asia, Langurs, colobus monkeys, mainly folivorous (east leaves), have specialized stomach (to digest all the cellulose the ingest, stomach has chambers with specialized bacteria), good at taking advantages of new habitats (like cities)
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33
Q

How do you tell the difference between and monkey and an ape?

A

Apes have no tails.

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34
Q

What are the characteristics of the superfamily Hominoidea?

A

Hominoidea–>Hylobatidae (family)
- move very fast so they are hard to study.
- gibbons and siamangs
- monogamous
- lesser apes
- branchiators (arm swinging)

Hominoidea–>Hominidae

  • Ponginae –> 2 male strategies (some males develop flanges (dominance –> get to reproduce more) and some don’t), solitary or dispersed social networks, most arboreal great ape
  • Homininae (only found in sub-saharan africa)
    • Gorilla(genus) –> largest living primate (differnece in size between males and females), western gorillas and mountain (eastern) gorillas
    • Pan(genus)–> bonobo and chimpanzee
    • Homo (genus)
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35
Q

What did Darwin’s finches show?

A

Darwin’s finches had different beak sizes which showed variations as each bird had breaks that better suited their ecological niches. Variations are heritable.

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36
Q

What were Malthus’ ideas about reproduction?

A

He believed reproduction couldn’t be infinite because there aren’t enough resources to support too many individuals. Malthus applied this idea to humans and Darwin realized that this problem was also aplicable to other species.

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37
Q

How does evolution work? What are the 3 postulates of natural selection?

A

1) Struggle for existence. Population can expand infinitely but resources are finite.

2) Variation in fitness. Organisms vary and variations affect organisms ability to (survive and) reproduce.

3) Inheritance of variation. Variation is transmitted from parents to offspring.

Overtime individuals with adaptive traits become more common, via births and deaths.
* having certain traits doesn’t guarantee survival + there are also behavioral adaptations.

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38
Q

What are genes and genotypes?

A

A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific trait, they are passed from parents to offspring. There are some protein-coding genes and some regulatory genes (determine gene expression).

Polygenic traits–> many genes affect one trait

Pleiotropic –> one gene affects many traits

A genotype is the genetic makeup of an individual. No 2 genotypes are the same.

39
Q

What is a phenotype and what is phenotype plasticity?

A

A phenotype is observable displayed characteristic that results from genes.

Phenotype plasticity is the ability of one genotype to produce more than one phenotype when exposed to different environments.

40
Q

What are the 5 mechanisms of evolution?

A

1) Natural selection

2) Genetic drift–> change of subset of gene pool in population due to chance event. Genetic bottle necks have a similar effect.

3) Mutations–> a permanent change in DNA sequence that makes up a gene. Somatic mutations are acquired during a lifetime. Hereditary mutations are inherited from a parent.

4) Recombinations–> genetic reshuffling that produces offspring with a combination of traits the differs fro either parent. Due to meiosis. We can get new phenotypes.

5) Gene flow –> transfer of genetic variation from one population to another. Migrations helps do this.

41
Q

What are the 3 types of selection?

A

Stabilizing selection - middle of bell curve is favored , selection against both extremes. –> eg., Tarsiers haven’t changed in 40 years.

Directional Selection - one extreme is favored. –> eg., Darwin’s finches. Eventually becomes stabilizing selection as one of the extreme becomes the normal.

Disruptive selection - selection against the mean. Leads to speciation. It’s difficult to observe.

42
Q

What is sexual selection?

A

Sexual selection is a type of natural selection in which certain characteristics are favored because opposite sex selects for them.

43
Q

How can we group the 5 mechanisms of evolution?

A

Decrease variation –> natural selection and genetic drift.

Increase variation –> mutations, recombination and gene flow.

44
Q

What are microevolution and macroevolution?

A

Microevolution - evolutionary change within a species. E.g., dogs and their range of phenotypic variation.

Macroevolution - Evolution of new species or higher taxonomic groups

45
Q

What is gene expression and why is it important?

A

Gene expression determines which genes are switched on or off.

  • Allow organisms to respond to their environment.
  • Permits gene differentiation in eukaryotes.
  • Explains which cells with the same DNA can do different things.
  • Explains why despite sharing our DNA with many other species, we look so different.
46
Q

How was Lamarck’s theory correct?

A

Lamarck proposed that through use and disuse individuals can adapt to to their environment and that this adaptations can be passed on to their offspring. He had the wrong mechanism but he wasn’t entirely wrong about inheritance. His ideas are somewhat supported by epigenetics.

Waddington later demonstrated that acquired characteristics can be inherited. –> experiments on wings of fruit flies.

47
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

Epigenetics: changes in gene expression due to chemical reactions that activate/deactivate parts of the genome at specific times. Modified the activation of genes but not the genes themselves. It may allow an organism to adjust gene expression to fit environment. But there are many things we still don’y understand about epigenetics.

*Epigenome–> network of chemical compounds that surround DNA

48
Q

What factores affect epigenetics?

A
  • Development –> when genere expression is altered during development downstream effects can cause changes in the adult.
  • Chemicals (drugs and pharmaceuticals)
  • Aging
  • Diet
  • Physical activity
49
Q

What is genetic assimilation?

A

Process in which a phenotype originally produced in response to an environmental condition (phenotypic plasticity), later becomes genetically encoded via natural selection.

50
Q

What is the modern evolutionary synthesis?

A

Proposed by Julian Huxley.
- characteristics are inherited as discrete entities called genes.
- mutation and recombination introduce genetic variation.
- natural selection/drifts shape/reduce this variation
- speciation is due to gradual accumulation of small genetic changes.

  • some scientists think that it should be changed to include epigenetics.
51
Q

Who does natural selection favor?

A

Natural selection favors the selfish, those who make sure they survive without regards fro the group.

Group selection –> individuals working for evolution of the group

52
Q

Is evolutionary theory descriptive or normative?

A

Evolutionary theory is descriptive. It describes and predicts how things are but doesn’t ell us how to deal with how things ought to be.

53
Q

What are the types of adaptations?

A

Adaptations are characteristics that evolve in response to natural selection.

  • Structural/morphological (shape and structure) –> physical adaptations to deal with environment. Characteristics of the body we can see.
  • Behavioral
  • Physiological (Function of system) –> Things that we can’t see that are going on inside. (eg., cellulose digestig)
  • Different adaptation types are usually complimentary (eg., Patas monkeys running is supported by their long legs)
    Adaptations provide important clues about ecological niche. Similar niches tend to generate similar adaptations (could be for different purposes)
54
Q

What are some of the adaptations of the mountain gorillas?

A
  • Extreme size
  • Thick hair–> live in cold whether and are attacked by ectoparasites
  • Chest beating –> live in groups and have to communicate with other organisms.
  • Exceptionally long intestines–> have hard to digest plant based diet.
55
Q

What are some adaptations of Patas monkeys?

A
  • Long, thin arms and legs –> run a lot
  • Reddish-sandy colored hair –> live in sandy places.
  • High density, large sweat glands–> have to run a lot.
  • Predator specific alarm calls–> have many predators and are social.
56
Q

What does socioecology mean?

A

the study of how sociality (social structure, social organization, and mating system) are influenced by an organism’s environment.

57
Q

What are some common environments that primates like?

A

Tropical forests. So they spend a lot of time in trees (–> avoid predators, shelter from whether condition, closer access to food source)

primate habitats are diverse and their adaptations, including their behavior, depends on the features of their habitats.

58
Q

Why do primates form groups?

A

One of the important questions of primate socioecology.
- Ancestral state was solitary and nocturnal (safe from predators).

Benefits of living in groups:

  • Protection against predators
  • Help raising offspring
  • Group defense (against conspecifics)
  • Access to mates
59
Q

How does predation pressure relate to group sizes?

A
  • More predation pressure = larger groups (predation is a significant source of extrinsic mortality (things that kill you which are not inside of you))
    –> dilution effect (less chance of being eaten because there are other individuals that could get eaten and you get to escape)
    –> confusion effect (hard to know who is who)
    –> more individuals = more eyes to detect predators
  • Less predation pressure = smaller groups
60
Q

What are the costs of living in a group?

A
  • Resource competition
    –> mainly for food
  • Intra-specific aggression
  • Disease susceptibility
  • Invest time and energy socializing
  • Less mobility (individuals don’t decide where to go)
61
Q

What are the types of sources of food?

A

Folivore –> leaves

Insectivore –> insects

Faunivore –> animals

Gummivore –> sap

Frugivory –> fruits

Gramnivory –> seeds

  • very few species rely entirely on one source of food
62
Q

Dispersed vs clumped resources and how they relate to contest and scramble competition

A

Dispersed–> widely spread and of low individual value.
-Not worth fighting for (scramble competition, whoever gets there first gets it)
- Smaller groups

Clumped–> tightly clustered and of high individual value.
-Worth fighting for (contest competition)
- Bigger groups

  • Resource competition happens within groups and between groups
63
Q

Territories vs overlapping home ranges

A

Territories –> space of land you protect from others
-Costly behavior –> time consuming and dangerous
-eg., chimpanzees

Overlapping home ranges –> shared space with others
- Scramble competition

64
Q

What is the socioecological model in simple terms?

A

Predation pressure and resource competition affect primate social systems (group living)

65
Q

What is social organization?

A

refers to the size, composition, and social cohesion of primate groups.

  • Solitary
  • Pair-living
  • Group living
66
Q

What are the types of primate groups?

A

Simple groups
- polygynous (1 male + many females)
- polyandrous (many males + 1 female)
- polygynandrous (many males and many females)

Complex groups
- Multi-level societies (one male units (communities) within higher level organization)
-Fission fusion societies (size and composition of subgroups changes across the day) –> entire group is rarely ever together

67
Q

Which are the possible mating systems?

A

Who is mating with who.
Gyno = female
Andro = male

Polygynandry (many:many)

Polygamy
Polygyny (1 male:many females)
Polyandry (1 female:many males)

Monogamy (one:one)

*Not necessarily equated to social organization–> we would need gentic testing of the offspring to know for sure

68
Q

What is social structure?

A

Refers to relationships between individuals.

  • Social bonds
  • Dominance, aggression
  • Cooperation, affiliation
  • sexual conflict
69
Q

What is environmental stress?

A

Aany change in an organism’s environment that reduces an individual or population’s ability to survive or reproduce.

The level of stress is determined not only by the stressor but also by the organism. Organisms will be more stressed out by stressors they aren’t used to.

There can be:
Abiotic stressors: non-living aspects of the environment
Biotic stressors: living aspects of the environment
Anthropogenic: caused by humans (eg., deforestation)

70
Q

What are some of the effects of climate change for primates?

A

Changing temperatures and precipitation

  • Increases disease transmission and parasite infection
  • Changes in community structure
  • Shifting food availability
  • Shifting species’ range –> the geographic area where we see a species living in today
71
Q

How can populations respond to new environmental conditions?

A

1) Migrate and follow ecological shifts in niche –> difficult because primates ofter live in fragmented habitats which means it’s difficult to get out.

2) Adapt to new conditions

  • Genetic –> very unlikely as vertebrate species would need to evolve 10,000 times faster
  • Behavioral –> they are going to have to rely on this is they want to survive
  • Physiological
    They need to make this adjustments to maintain homeostasis
    3) Go extinct
72
Q

What is thermoregulation

A

The ability to maintain a proper body temperature.

  • Important in maintaining physiological homeostasis
  • Important to adapt to extreme and variable environments
    –> Behavioral (Shade, adjust activity schedule (resting times), alter posture, soaking or swimming)
    –> Physiological(increase stress response, alter metabolic rate, increase heat production (shivering), increase heat loss (sweating or panting))
73
Q

How do you measure adaptations for thermoregulation?

A

Behavioral thermoregulation and physical signs of physiological thermoregulation can be observed, but internal physiological mechanisms cannot.

Non-invasive measurements from fecal samples:

–> Measure fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs) (cortisol metabolites). Increase in FGMs has been seen in response to extreme whether conditions and they are a signal of stress. Use technique to single out which conditions cause stress
–> Measure thyroid hormone (T^3). Increased T^3 have been seen in response to cold temperatures to increase metabolsim.

74
Q

How do you evaluate the effect of thermoregulation in wild animals?

A

It’s difficult.

  • Body implants
    –> chip that measures body temp and transmits it to a computer is implanted. Animals are sedated and then given reward. Has minimal risks so cannot be done on endangered species.
  • Fecal temperature
    –> Stick thermometer in feces and record time taken to cool down. Use measurements to work backwards and figure out body temp. Could be difficult to obtain a lot of data from one individual.
  • Thermal imaging
    –> This is not a direct measure. Measures infrared radiation which gives an indicator of sub cutaneous temp which is an indicator of core body temp.
75
Q

Case study: Fongoli Chimpanzee

A
  • Live in semi-arid savannah environment (Av rainfall = 945mm and temp = 28.4C but can reach 45.9C)
  • Significantly stressed by heat and water scarcity

Adaptations:
–> Water soaking (despite chimps usually being hydrophobic)
–> Cave use (usually used by lactating females) (only effective with dry whether)
–> Nocturnal activity
–>Heavy use of gallery forest (narrow strip of forest that grows besides body of water) habitat

Methods used to measure:
- Measure microclimate conditions between habitats
- Focals on fongoli males
- Thermal imaging

Results:
Access to certain habitats is important for the chimps behavioral thermoregulation.

They can also thermoregulate by adjusting their activity schedule to include more soaking and resting behavior.

76
Q

Case study: Mountain gorillas in Rwanda

A
  • Endangered species (but has been one of the only conservation success stories). Only great ape that is increasing in population (went from 200 to 1000).
  • Found in mountain forests –> high altitude, warm during the day and very cold during the night.
  • Volcanoes national Park (VNP) live at extremely high elevation fro primate species (2,630-3,850m). Env is cold and damp.
    –> Habitats: bamboo, hagenia, alpine habitat, …

Environmental stressors:
–> increase in temperature and precipitation –> results in some groups moving upward in elevation in their ranging patterns (have to live closer together due to fragmented habitats)

Physiological and behavioral adjustments to prevent hyperthermia:
–> unclear
–> increased cortisol observed
–> Increased use of high elevations (very cold and low oxygen). Female deaths after 3,300 meters

Methods to study sites and subjects:
- Collect microclimate data using dataloggers placed across different mountains that gorillas inhabit.
- Collect microclimate during behavioral follows using kestrel environmental meter (measure temp, humidity, wind speed, elevation)
- focal group scans (4 hour period) –> scans every 5 minutes
- Focal follows (50 minute) –> note behavior like posture, env conditions, habitat, elevation and # of individuals in contact
- Do activity budgets (% time spent doing different things)

Preliminary findings:
- Expose armpits to cool down
- Expose groins to cool down
–> to increase evaporative heat loss
- Huddling when it’s cold
- Not socializing when it’s hot

77
Q

What is the socioecological model?

A

The socioecological model emphasizes the effects of major ecological factors, especially resource distribution and risk of predation.

During recent years scientists have been considering other factors like sex typical reproductive strategies and influences of sexual conflict on social relationships.

78
Q

What is the scientific method?

A

Simple yet systematic process to understand phenomena. Its’s a repetitive cycle.

Research question–> hypothesis –> predictions –> design experiment to test hypothesis –> observational data is collected –> data is analyzed –> reevaluation is data contradicts hypothesis.

*project has to be tested and verified before starting –> to make sure design is measuring what we want to measure.
*One can never prove a hypothesis. We can reject a hypothesis or provisionally accept it.

79
Q

What are types of primatological research?

A

Species centered
–> focus is on learning as much as possible about the subject species. Draws all questions and concepts that apply to it.

Concept or question centered
–> A particular behavior, mechanism or model is under examination. This guides the choice of subject species.

80
Q

What are some biases encountered when using sampling methods?

A

Jeanne Altmann pointed out that techniques of taking fieldnotes were inadequate to use for statistical analysis and that observations came with cognitive biases.
- Eg., Males emphasize behavior of males, highly visible activities receive more attention than quiet ones.
- No separation of states of behavior (durational behavior, expanse of time can be measured) and events of behavior (instantaneous, short duration and can be expressed as a frequency)

81
Q

How to you use state and event data?

A

Researchers need to record behavioral data as either event or state in the ethogram.
Categorization depends on:
duration of behavior and decision of researcher of whether the recording procedure will be restricted to events only, states only or a specific mixture.

State- Involves durations so can be used to develop time budget for specific population.

Event - rates of occurrence of those behaviors.

82
Q

What is an ethogram?

A

An ethogram is a list of behaviors that represent the repertoire of a species.
- The descriptions should break down behavior in as many descriptors as possible. Description cannot include term being defined.
- Should be mutually exclusive and extensive. There should be no overlap between behavior categories.

  • For certain behaviors you ca include a hierarchy within the behaviors (different levels or ways in which the behavior is done).
83
Q

Sampling methodologies

A

Behavior oriented:
Ad libtum –> observer records whatever they think is relevant at the time of observation. No specified methods.

All occurrence –> observing all individuals in a group and recording all instances of highly visible behaviors. Good way of recording data on the frequency of behaviors of interest. Becomes too difficult if you are interested in common behaviors that many individuals so at the same time.

Sequence sampling –> non probabilistic sampling in which sample size is not fixed in advance

Individual oriented (requires identification of individuals):

Focals –>
Focal time sampling –>follow a single individual for a specific period of time and take notes of behavior at every time interval.
Focal animal sampling –> follow single individual for specifc period of time (eg., 20 minutes) and record everything the subject does or has done to them. Allows for maximum data collection. Can be difficult to keep track of all the behaviors if they are very active.

Scan methods –> Instantaneous scan sampling/interval sampling. At a specific time take a sweeping observation of behaviors of all individuals in the group. Good to determine % of time spent on each behavior. Misses short behaviors.

One zero–> if specific behavior occurs during chosen time interval? 1=yes 0=no (cannot tell frequency or duration of behavior

84
Q

What are the types of variables?

A
  • Nominal: measurement units within the variable.
  • Ordinal: similar to nominal except that the categories are ranked into an ordered sequence. Can be quantitative or qualitative sequencing.
  • Interval: rarely used. Similar to ordinal except that the categories are ranked and separated by a fixed interval along continuous measurement scale. There is no zero point or it’s arbitrarily assigned. Eg., temperature scales.
  • Ratio: similar to interval except that the zero point is known. E.g., time and distances. Always numerical.
85
Q

What are observation schedules and how do they work?

A

A lay out to get to all the points.

Fixed formal schedule
- Experimenters collect data at specific times for specific durations.
- Best for small groups, short duration studies or for specific experimental sampling of a particular set of members of a larger group.
- Also, goof for observation in a zoological facility. harder to do in the wild.

Random sampling schedules
- Preferred when data is going to be analyzed using inferential statistics or when sample is large.
- Must use procedure that will acceptably produce random allocation of times to observe particular animals.
- Study must be long enough to balance out all the factors (if for example an individual is drawn many times).

86
Q

What are the components that a check-sheet should have?

A

Every check sheets is different for every researcher.
1) Data management and control areas
2) Observer
3) Date
4) Times of observation
5) Data collection fields
6) Recording method

87
Q

Out of sight problem

A

What to do when a subject moves into an unobservable area. Observer should include category of behavior labeled as out of sight and set rule on how much out of sight time is tolerated before sample is discarded.

Different approaches on how to handle situation:
- Delete out of sight time from sample.
- Suspend observation until animal comes back.

If out of sight time is short:
- Allocate same behavior seen before subject disappeared.
- Allocate same behavior seen when subject comes back.

88
Q

Criteria for selecting a species to study

A

Factores to consider:
- Suitability for the concept being studied. If the species displays behavior studied.
- Availability of the subject. Can you easily go or have the species brought to you? Potential legal problems? Can they de easily observed?
- Adaptability. Has the animal adapted to captivity?
- Available data regarding what’s known about the species.

89
Q

How should behavior be described?

A

Behavior is independent of observer. developing a behavior repertoire takes time of observing the species. New behaviors are always being added.

Empirical descriptions: behaviors in terms of body parts, movements and postures. Eg., baring teeth (gruñir)

Functional descriptions: behavior’s function, proximally or ultimately. Eg., bared teeth threat.

*Observers should avoid anthropomorphism (projecting human behaviors onto animals). Using more empirical vs functional descriptions helps.

90
Q

Individual vs Social and Static vs Dynamic behaviors

A

Individual –> the system in relation to itself or its environment.

Social –> interrelation of the systems of the same class.

Static–> those that are fixed in relation to the systems.

Dynamic –> involve a sequence of spatial relations.

91
Q

Fixed and variable behavior patterns

A

Depends on roots in nature or nurture.
Degrees of natural behaviors:
- Ritualized –> behavior is ritualized in an organism when it presents 3 characteristics.
1) it’s stereotypical within the species
2) shaped by natural selection
3) controlled by genetic mechanisms
- Constitute displays –> ritualized signal that is exaggerated, more stereotypic and incorporates several elements that make it complex in form. Eg,. eyelid flash

92
Q

Behavior for data recording

A

Grammar is needed for the record construction.
Actor-Act-Recipient
Eg., Jo-Jo receives grooming from Jay-Jay

Code is also needed to avoid errors. Code consists of 1, 2 or 3 letters based on the behavior label or name.
Eg., Receives groom from –>rgm

Accurate time control –> reaction time loop. Rule of thumb is to record to an accuracy of 1s. Over long period of time net effect is almost 0. Video or film also help with precision.

93
Q

Primatological methods: wild, free-ranging and captive

A

Natural environment- animals may or may not be constrained and influenced by human populations. Fewer ethical considerations (be careful with waste disposal and habitat modification). Local government consent does need to be obtained.

Large group enclosures - activities are constrained by the presence of fences or moats and their interactions with keepers.

Typical zoo enclosures- surrounded on all sides by human fabrications. Ethical considerations (eg., manipulation of care and conditions, enclosed size, feeding schedules,…).

  • To a large degree species-specific behaviors will be uniform in all environments. There are minor variations in the patterns, but the main differences are in the frequency and intensity of the acts.
    • Aggression and grooming tend to increase under captive conditions.

Primate Behavior (1 decks)

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