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Ecology > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is ecology?

A

The study of relationships of organisms and their environment.

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2
Q

What are abiotic environmental factors?

A

Those that are non-living, so temperature, moisture, nutrients, fire, or toxins.

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3
Q

What are biotic environmental factors?

A

Those that are living, such as competition, herbivory, predation, parasitism, disease, and mutualism.

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4
Q

What is the fundamental unity in ecology?

A

Ecosystems

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5
Q

What is the function of an ecosystem described by (functional attributes)?

A
  1. Productivity (rate of increase in biomass)
  2. Changes in nutrients (nitrogen fixation)
  3. Flow of energy
  4. Flow of water
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6
Q

Competition

A

Organisms interfere with one another as they vie for access to resources whose supply is less than the biological demand.

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7
Q

What are the different types of competition?

A

Intraspecific = same species
Interspecific = between species

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8
Q

Parasitism/disease

A

Feeding relationship in which the host is not killed

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9
Q

Ecosystem

A

Space in which organisms interact with one another and with environmental factors.

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10
Q

What levels does ecology compass of the hierarchy of the universe?

A
  1. Individual organisms: living entities that are genetically and physically discrete
  2. Populations: individuals of the same species that co-occur in space and time
  3. Species: individuals that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
  4. Communities: populations of various species
  5. Ecospaces: mosaics of various kinds of community-level patches over a large area
  6. Biosphere: all space occupied by life on Earth
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11
Q

What bird species is only found in Central America?

A

Rufous-and-white Wren

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12
Q

Where do Rufous-and-white Wren always nest?

A

In a bullhorn acacia.

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13
Q

What makes Bullhorn acacia unique? Its purpose?

A

Has “bull-like” horns throughout tree that protects itself from herbivore (don’t want to be eaten + house stinging ants).

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14
Q

How do bullhorn acacia grow in relation to other trees?

A

By themselves in pasture and wetlands.

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15
Q

How to acacia ants alert of an intruder?

A

Release a vingerary smell.

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16
Q

How do the acacia ants survive on the tree?

A

Nectary - are parts of leaves that produce sugar and water
Beltian body - little packets of proteins and lipids

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17
Q

What omnivores/herbivores nest on the Bullhorn acacia and its birds?

A

White-tailed deers and white-faced capuchin monkey.

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18
Q

How do acacia ants make sure there is no competition of plants?

A

They use their mandibles to chop down growing tree so that the bullhorn one can grow by itself receiving all the sunlight and nutrients it needs. Creating ant clearcuts.

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19
Q

Mutualism

A

Where each species gets a benefit in the relationship.

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20
Q

What species can invade the bullhorn acacia and exploit it?

A

The Rufus-and-white wren and the wasps.

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21
Q

How does an ecologist test a research question?

A

Identify a question - look at a relevant theory - formulate hypothesis - test it - reject or accept it

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22
Q

What environment do mangroves live in?

A

Brackish water: where the freshwater meets saltwater

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23
Q

Intertidal zone

A

Zone between the water at high tide and low tide.

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24
Q

Why is saltwater bad for trees?

A

It dehydrates them through osmosis.

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25
Q

How do mangroves adapt to saltwater?

A

Take in the saltwater at the base of its roots, use the water and shunt out the salt to the surface of its leaves (salt metabolism).

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26
Q

How do mangroves adapt to the changing water levels and overwhelmed soil?

A

Have pheumatophores (lung roots) which are projections off of roots that stick in the air to grab oxygen.

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27
Q

How are mangrove seeds different from other plant seeds?

A

Start germinating a root before even left the plant.

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28
Q

What is the advantage of mangrove seeds are growing roots?

A

When swept away they are already set to anchor themselves and begin growing.

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29
Q

How do mangroves build land?

A

They accumulate soil in their roots as and they do, it creates more space to grow.

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30
Q

What do mangroves help us with?

A

They filter runoff from upland areas.

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31
Q

What ecosystem do mangroves create? To who?

A

A rich forest environment that provides homes for crabs, manatees, and birds.

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32
Q

How do mangroves create organic waste?

A

All the organisms living there pee/poo and parts of plants fall off that get carried away on ocean currents providing a source of organic nutrients elsewhere.

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33
Q

What are environmental factors?

A

Features of the environment, either biotic or abiotic, that affect individual organisms, populations, communities, landscapes, etc.

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34
Q

Give example of abiotic environmental factors.

A

Temperature, moisture, radiation, wind and water currents, nutrients, toxic substances, etc.

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35
Q

Give examples of biotic environmental factors.

A

Other organisms, direct effects like predation, and indirect effects like competition for resources.

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36
Q

What are common examples of limiting factors?

A

Mineral nutrients most often phosphorus for lakes.

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37
Q

What is a limiting factor?

A

Factor with the lowest availability relative to the organism’s need to survive.

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38
Q

How does phosphorus limit lake productivity?

A

Additional phosphorus leads to algal blooms which deplete the oxygen from the water ecosystem, killing the organisms that live in the environment - eutrophication.

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39
Q

What is the principle of limiting factors?

A

Growth is controlled not by the total amount of resources available, but by the resource that is in the shortest supply.

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40
Q

Explain how lake eutrophication works.

A
  1. Nutrients increase in lakes
  2. Excess phosphorus results in an increase in phytoplankton
  3. Creates huge algal blooms
  4. Once they die, they decay and this process requires oxygen
  5. Uses oxygen from the water to help with decomposition
  6. No oxygen left floating in the water = fish die
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41
Q

When does lake eutrophication take place?

A

During warm environments when there is a lot of growth/nutrients and runoff from areas surrounding the lakes.

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42
Q

Compare eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes.

A

Oligotrophic lakes generally host very little or no aquatic vegetation and are relatively clear, while eutrophic lakes tend to host large quantities of organisms with excess nutrients, including algal blooms.

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43
Q

What is a niche?

A

The physical space that is occupied by the organism: all environmental factors that limit distribution, growth, and reproduction of a species.

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44
Q

Fundamental niche

A

The complete range of conditions under which a species can establish, grow, and reproduce when it is free from interference.
ex. geranium will grow in soil that doesn’t experience frost

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45
Q

Realized niche

A

The observed resource used by a species in nature, where distribution is restricted by environmental factors.
ex. oriental lilies tolerate Ontario climate, but do not survive in face of weeds

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46
Q

Phenotypic plasticity

A

Ability of an organism to change its phenotype to response to changes in the environment

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47
Q

Stressor

A

Environmental factor that limits performance of organisms, populations, communities, and landscapes.
ex. wildfire, toxicity, etc.

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48
Q

Performance

A

Productivity and reproductive fitness, relative to genetic potential

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49
Q

Tolerance

A

Organisms, populations, etc. have the capacity to function in a “healthy” manner within a range of environmental stressors

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50
Q

A in plot of environmental stressor.

A

Shows an early response to stress; can serve as an early-warning signal (quick decline then levels out)
ex. canary in a coal mine

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51
Q

D in plot of environmental stressor.

A

Shows a late response to stress; high tolerance but can often cause rapid change (slow then quick decline)
ex. water toxicity in lakes

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52
Q

B in plot of environmental stressor.

A

Steadily and provides a consistent measure throughout stressor.

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53
Q

C in plot of environmental stressor.

A

Shows a stepwise response with rapid chance at certain thresholds, followed by stability.

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54
Q

Resilience

A

Speed and degree to which an organism, population, etc. can recover to its original state following an event of disturbance
ex. jack pine forest that don’t open pine seeds to fire

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55
Q

Chronic stressor

A

Long term influence
ex. nutrients in water and primary productivity

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56
Q

Disturbance stressor

A

Powerful, but short-lived event
ex. severe windstorm, fire, etc.

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57
Q

Natural stressor

A

Present for very long periods of times

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58
Q

Anthropogenic stressors

A

Those associated with human development (cause by or modified by)
- increase levels of toxic substances
- changed climate or hydrology
- diminishing of wild populations

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59
Q

Climatic stress

A

Temperature, solar radiation, wind, etc.

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60
Q

Chemical stress

A

High concentrations that cause toxicity
ex. lead, mercury

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61
Q

Wildfire

A

Combustion of biomass

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62
Q

Physical stress

A

Volcanic eruption

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63
Q

Biological stress

A

Interaction among organisms

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64
Q

What are the outcomes of environmental stressor in terms of species?

A

Top predators and large-bodied species are lost leading to a decrease in diversity and richness.

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65
Q

Ecological energetics

A

The study of fixation, transfer, and storage of energy by ecosystem components.

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66
Q

Why is the biosphere an open system?

A

Cannot sustain itself in terms of energetic requirements thus constant input of energy is needed.

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67
Q

What is the most important energy source?

A

Solar radiation

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68
Q

How does photosynthesis relate to solar radiation?

A

Uses visible light to capture energy levels from the sun into useable biomolecules that can sustain light through the transfer of energy.

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69
Q

Photosynthesis equation

A

Sunlight + 6 CO2 + 6 H20 –> C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6 O2

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70
Q

What organisms use photosynthesis?

A

Autotrophs
ex. green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria

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71
Q

Autotrophs

A

Self-feeding organisms (make their own food)

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72
Q

What is the delayed release of solar energy?

A

Absorbed and biologically fixed energy that is stored for long periods of times as peat or fossil fuels.

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73
Q

How does solar radiation vary?

A

In temperate zones, seasonal variation in available energy by solar radiation causes major fluctuations in biological activity.

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74
Q

First law of thermodynamics

A

Energy can be transformed but not created or destroyed, so any input energy = stored and output

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75
Q

Relate solar energy to the first law of thermodynamics.

A

Solar input equals the amount reflected, transformed in chemical form, stored as heat, and dissipated energy.

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76
Q

Second law of thermodynamics

A

Energy transformations can occur spontaneously only under conditions in which entropy of the Universe is increased; energy is needed to create order; and this transformation isn’t totally efficient (require energy).

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77
Q

How does sunlight income as?

A

Reflected or absorbed.

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78
Q

What is absorbed energy broken down into?

A

Re-radiation of linger-wave infrared energy (heat).

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79
Q

What is absorbed sunlight equal to?

A

Dissipated energy.

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80
Q

How does solar radiation vary in terms of latitude?

A

Based on latitude: more focused on center of earth, radiation is curved and spread out over a greater distance on the top of the earth. In addition, near the equator it moves through the atmosphere at 90 degree (smaller distance) and up top it moves oblique (greater distance at same thickness, so more is absorbed).

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81
Q

What are greenhouse gases?

A

Natural gases that absorb some of the dissipated infrared radiation and re-radiate it in all directions.
ex. carbon dioxide, water, and methaneW

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82
Q

What does the result of greenhouse gases provide?

A

Earth with a thermal blanket

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83
Q

Why have greenhouse gases increased?

A

Combustion of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture.

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84
Q

Why can a warmer climate be good?

A

It increases productivity be creating longer growing seasons (autotroph can create sunlight into sugars over a longer period) and decomposition (break down quicker the hotter it is).

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85
Q

Give an example of how global climate change will change where organisms live.

A

Cod, anglerfish, and snake blenny are deep sea fish that over many periods of time shifted northward in latitude, as temperatures are too warm near the equator.

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86
Q

What are responsible for primary production in ecology?

A

Autotrophs as they turn solar energy into molecules, with provides the biological foundation for most processes.

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87
Q

Photoautotrophs

A

Use the sunlight to drive the transfer of energy into biomolecules
ex. plants, algae, cyanobacteria

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88
Q

Chemoautotrophs

A

Use inorganic (heat) energy to generate biomolecules
ex. specialized bacteria in deep sea vents

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89
Q

What molecule captures sunlight?

A

Chlorophyll

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90
Q

Why do most plants on earth appear green?

A

They absorb blue and red wavelengths and reflect green light (object appears complementary to one is absorbed).

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91
Q

Heterotrophs

A

Other organisms that feed on other things to sustain themselves.
ex. herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, detritivores

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92
Q

Are all plants autotrophs?

A

Nope, not all can photosynthesize. For example ghost piper has no chlorophyll and has roots that connect to other plants to steal resources from others.

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93
Q

Productivity

A

Rate at which energy is fixed (in autotrophs) and rate at which biomass is accumulating (organisms and ecosystems)

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94
Q

What is the form of mass measured by productivity?

A

Dry weight

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95
Q

What is the measurement for productivity?

A

Time/hector/year

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96
Q

Gross primary production

A

Total amount of solar energy fixed by autotrophs

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97
Q

Respiration

A

Amount of energy used by autotrophs for their metabolism (plants use 1/4 to 1/3 of energy for respiration)

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98
Q

Net primary production

A

Gross primary production minus respiration by autotrophs (left over)
NPP = GPP - R

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99
Q

What are the most productive habitats?

A

Warm and humid climates with fertile soil produce most carbon.
ex. rainforest, reefs, estuaries (mangrove)

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100
Q

Why do open oceans have a low net primary productivity?

A

Because of low nutrient availability

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101
Q

Why do open oceans account for a large amount of global production of carbon?

A

Due to their vast area

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102
Q

Food chain

A

Linear representation of feeding interactions and energy transfer.

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103
Q

List of consumers and producers in a food chain.

A

Quaternary consumer –> teritary consumer –> secondary consumer -> primary consumer -> primary producer (autotrophs)

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104
Q

How much energy flows up a food chain?

A

Only a part of the energy is absorbed and utilized as the energy is lost throughout each process through decomposition or heat or respiration (90/80% lost).

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105
Q

How much energy do herbivores take from their food?

A

10%

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106
Q

Food web

A

Representation of all feeding interactions among the food chains in an ecosystem

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107
Q

What do number of predators depend on why?

A

The base of the ecological pyramid as with each increasing trophic level productivity declines due to inefficient energy transfers.

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108
Q

Biomagnification

A

The accumulation of toxic materials as you make your way up a trophic pyramid.

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109
Q

How did DDT enter the ecosystem and work its way up the pyramid?

A

Humans used it to spray insects and critters leading to runoff into nearby rivers where the autotrophs were exposed to the chemical and then the herbivores that ate them accumulated them….working all the way up to hawks and eagles where their eggs weren’t properly laid due to high levels.

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110
Q

Nutrients

A

Substances necessary for healthy physiology of organisms (limiting environmental factors).

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111
Q

Macronutrients

A

Nutrients required in large quantities.

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112
Q

List macronutrients.

A

Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.

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113
Q

List macro-mineral nutrients.

A

Nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, and potassium.

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114
Q

What does mineral nutrient availability limit?

A

Plant productivity

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115
Q

Micronutrients

A

Are need in very low quanities.

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116
Q

List micronutrients.

A

Iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, etc.

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117
Q

What does lack of micronutrients lead to?

A

Deficiency syndromes
ex. low copper can lead to root or stem breakage

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118
Q

What is nitrogen critical for?

A

For amino acids and needed for our proteins to help us grow.

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119
Q

Essential micronutrient

A

One needed, if without it, life ceases to exist.

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120
Q

What happens to essential micronutrients present at high concentrations?

A

Toxicity
ex. nickle and copper can stunt plant root growth at high quantities

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121
Q

What can long exposure of toxic substances lead to?

A

Evolution of tolerant organisms.
ex. mangroves have evolved salt tolerance

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122
Q

Hyperaccumulation

A

Where plants neutralize toxic substances by accumulating them in their vacuoles
ex. laying plants down railyards with toxic metals OR mangroves

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123
Q

Phytoremediation

A

Using plants to clean soil, air, and water

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124
Q

Do we need to constantly input macronutrients and micro in the earth?

A

It’s cycled over and over, moving between different forms on earth.
ex. Canada geese obtain nutrients from grass and their feces fertilize the grass

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125
Q

What are the part of nutrient budgets?

A

Input, transformations, output, and compartments.

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126
Q

What compartments do nutrients exist in?

A

Atmospheric gasses, organic pool (living biological tissue that is found at or near the surface of the Earth; dead, heterotrophs, biomass), available nutrients (chemical forms that organism can get from their environment like water-soluble ions and organic compounds), and rocks and soil deep in the Earth/ocean (insoluble minerals).

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127
Q

Bioremedation

A

Uses a biological processes to fix chemicals in the Earth.
ex. insects to remove toxins

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128
Q

Carbon

A

Backbone of life, serving as the most important structural molecule of life.

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129
Q

How is carbon fixed? Where?

A

From the atmosphere using photosynthesis.

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130
Q

How is carbon released?

A

Decomposition and respiration.

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131
Q

How is carbon stored?

A

As biomass
ex. peat, coal, oil, gas, etc.

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132
Q

Where is most of the carbon?

A

Rocks of the earth, either liquid or in the deep earth.

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133
Q

What results in a fluctuation of atmospheric carbon?

A

Seasonal variation in living biomass in temperate zones (us).

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134
Q

What month of the year increases the most in CO2?

A

January, maybe due to plant activity using photosynthesis. When dying they release the CO2 back.

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135
Q

What conditions are needed for organic material to decompose slowly?

A

Low-oxygen conditions

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136
Q

What is carbon produced as?

A

Carbon dioxide and methane.

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137
Q

How is methane produced?

A

By bacteria, fossil fuel combustion, and flatulent heterotrophs (farting animals; cows).

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138
Q

What are the anthropogenic effects (changing the balance) of carbon?

A

Use of fossil fuel and land cover changes have produced a massive increase in carbon dioxide (putting the ones in the deep earth and the surface level into the atmosphere).

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139
Q

What are forms of nitrogen?

A

Nitrate and ammounium

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140
Q

What form of nitrogen, that it’s usually in, isn’t available?

A

Nitrogen gas

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141
Q

How is nitrogen growth-limiting?

A

Nitrogen in dog urine makes grass greener.

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142
Q

Where does nitrogen exists in the universe?

A

Atmosphere (most here as unusable), terrestrial organic, marine organic.

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143
Q

Where does carbon exists?

A

All compartments.

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144
Q

What is nitrogen fixation?

A

Conversion of atmospheric N2 into biologically usefull nitrogen.

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145
Q

How much nitrogen in the atmopshere?

A

78%

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146
Q

How is nitrogen fixed?

A

Bacteria, free-living or in symbiosis with plant hosts (clover or bean, made a house for in the roots) that provides the energy needed to get past the strong triple bond.

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147
Q

How is nitrogen fixed by lightning?

A

The process of oxidation

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148
Q

Why was it important for nitrogen to be fixed industrially for the farmers?

A

Use little nitrogen pellets to overcome manure farming (not dumping all other nutrients).

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149
Q

What bacteria fix nitrogen? Where?

A

In the root nodules of legume plants are rhizobium and bradyrhizobium.

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150
Q

What does nitrogen fixation provide for the plants?

A

A competitive advantage for a plant under nitrogen-limited conditions.

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151
Q

What is phosphorus critical in?

A

ATP, the energy source of cells and among other biomolecules.

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152
Q

Where is phosphorus found most?

A

Deep in the ocean or buried under the rock (marine sediments).

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153
Q

Is there phosphorus in the atmosphere?

A

No

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154
Q

What is the one-way transport of phosphorus?

A

Land to ocean sediments, while passing through other organisms.

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155
Q

Who are the biovectors of phosphorus?

A

Animals, especially birds, and migratory fish that move out of the ocean (eaten by bears).

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156
Q

What is naura?

A

A white rock filled with phosphorus.

157
Q

What happened with the pacific island nation of nauru?

A

Mined the phosphorus rocks, thus consuming their land.

158
Q

What is sulphur important in?

A

Proteins and biochemicals.

159
Q

Where is most sulphur contained?

A

Deep in the earth

160
Q

How is gaseous sulphur emitted?

A

Volcanoes

161
Q

Is sulphur produced by bacteria?

A

Some is

162
Q

How sulphur produced as a byproduct?

A

In factories by nickel smelting.

163
Q

What happens with more and more sulphur in the atmosphere?

A

Acid rain

164
Q

How much of global emissions of SO2 anthropogenic?

A

78%

165
Q

What is the purpose of soil?

A

To provide support in terrestrial ecosystems (those with plant roots, bacteria, protists, earthworms, etc.).

166
Q

What soils drain well? Poor?

A

Well = sandy soils
Poor = clay-dominated soils

167
Q

What increases water and nutrient holding capacity of soil?

A

Organic matter (humus).

168
Q

How do we prepare cod?

A

Deboning the animal and taking two large flanks, and oversalting it/drying it by the sun.

169
Q

What innovations helped the catching or cod?

A

Larger ships (more fish) and ores (deeper to grab fish that are feeding at bottom layers); large nets (can be dragged and dropped across two ships); refrigeration allows fish to be held up to weeks as they go out.

170
Q

What happened in the 1990s to the cod trade and harvest?

A

No more cod

171
Q

Population ecology

A

The study of population dynamics of species and how populations interact with the environment.
“How quickly do populations grow/ what are factors that limit the growth?”

172
Q

Population

A

Group of conspecific (same species) individuals that inhabit a particular area.

173
Q

Closed population

A

One that is isolated from other groups of the same species.

174
Q

Open population

A

One where individuals immigrate and/or emigrate.

175
Q

How is population size determine for a closed population?

A

By births and deaths.

176
Q

What is the equation for a closed population size?

A

Population increased from one time (t) until the next time (t+1) whenever B exceeds D:
N(t+1) = N (t) + (B-D)

177
Q

When would N (population size) decrease for a closed population?

A

When D exceeds B

178
Q

What is the equation for a open population size?

A

N(t+1) = N (t) + (B-D) + (I-E)

179
Q

Exponential growth model

A

Describes the rate of expansion of a population under ideal, unregulated conditions (doubling)

180
Q

Doubling time

A

The time required for a population to increase from N to 2N.

181
Q

Explain exponential growth using grey seals on Sable Island.

A

Grey seals were diminished by human harvest to almost none. Their population has been doubling in Sable Island since 1960.

182
Q

Is exponential growth sustainable?

A

No

183
Q

When is exponential observed?

A

Only when starting with small numbers, such as nearly extinct populations or when new habitats are being colonized.

184
Q

When does exponential growth stop?

A

When resources become limited, competition increases, and growth becomes unsustainable.

185
Q

When do logistic population growth occur?

A

Birth rates slow (not enough nutrients for females to have hormonal changes), death rates rise (competition for resources) at high densities.

186
Q

How does logistic populations look?

A

Sigmoidal curve

187
Q

Carrying capacity (K)

A

Maximum sustainable population size in a given environment

188
Q

What happens in an equilibrium population?

A

N = K

189
Q

What happens if N «< K?

A

Growth can be close to exponential, beginning of logistic population.

190
Q

What happens when N approaches K?

A

Growth slows until it reaches K.

191
Q

What species shows logistic population growth?

A

Merlin (falcons). Population was almost diminished due to DDT until banned.

192
Q

What is maximum sustainable yield?

A

The amount you can take out of a population without it crashing.

193
Q

What influences the maximum sustainable yield of a species?

A

Its population grwoth rate.

194
Q

When does maximum sustainable yield occur in a logistic?

A

Occurs at half of its carrying capacity.

195
Q

Fecundity

A

The number of offspring produced by an individual per season.

196
Q

Determinate growth

A

Fecundity is constant

197
Q

Indeterminate growth

A

Fecundity increases with age, until senescence (old, aged)
ex. fish (bigger they get as they age, allowing them to carry more fish)

198
Q

Iteroparous species

A

Reproduce more than once in their lifetime.
ex. humans, atlantic salmon

199
Q

Semelparous species

A

Reproduce only once, then die
ex. sockeye salmon

200
Q

What is the advantage of a semelparous species?

A

Ability to invest all acquired resources into a new generation.

201
Q

What does probability of survival and death depend on?

A

Age

202
Q

Type 1 survival

A

Low mortality expect old age.
ex. humans, bighorn sheep

203
Q

Explain type 1 survival curve.

A

Inverse exponential

204
Q

Type II survival

A

Constant rate of mortality (equally liking to die at old and young; due to predation or environment)
ex. chickadee

205
Q

Type III survival

A

High mortality rate for young individuals (too many fish babies put out first, so easily consumed)
ex. cod

206
Q

Explain type III survival curve.

A

Exponential decrease

207
Q

Life table

A

A matrix date on age-specific survival and fecundity.

208
Q

What can the data of a life table estimate and determine?

A

Net reproductive rate (Ro) and determine if the population is stable, growing, or shrinking.

209
Q

Abundance (Nx+1)

A

Number that survive to start of that year
(sxNx)

210
Q

Annual survival (sx)

A

Proportion of cohort that survives the year

211
Q

Age-specific survival (Ix)

A

Probability of surviving to that start of that year (Nx/No)

212
Q

Age-specific fecundity (mx)

A

Number of females per female in that year (how many offspring).

213
Q

Expected annual fecundity (lxmx)

A

Fecundity discounted by chance of dying before that age

214
Q

Ro

A

Net reproductive rate which is sum of lxmx.

215
Q

What does it mean if Ro is 1?

A

Population is stable (neither shrinking or growing).

216
Q

What does it mean if Ro is above 1?

A

Population is growing.

217
Q

What does it mean if Ro is below 1?

A

Population is declining.

218
Q

Exploitation competition (scramble)

A

Competition for resources without direct interaction
ex. moose eating plants reduces food for other herbivores

219
Q

Interference competition

A

Competition that follows direct interactions
ex. vulture defends a carcass from others

220
Q

What happens to the carrying capacity when two species are grown together?

A

Both carrying capacities are reduced for both species.

221
Q

What carrying capacity is reduced more when two species are grown together?

A

The weaker one is reduced more than the dominant one.

222
Q

What is the Lotka-Volterra competition model?

A
  • the population dynamics of a species is influenced by the presence of another, competing species
  • if two populations are competing for a common resource, their growth is influenced by each other and their competitive abilities
223
Q

Character displacement

A

Character changes because we have had to engage in competition to resources around us.
ex. Darwin finches, specifically the depth of their beaks

224
Q

Compare when exponential and logistic growth may occur.

A

Exponential = absence of limiting factors
Logistic = when competition occurs

225
Q

Behavioural ecology

A

The study of the behaviour of organisms, with reference to adaptive significance.
ex. a lot of how one species or another engage in competition, how they mate, reproductive strategies, parent-offspring interaction

226
Q

Why does an umlet carry heavy antlers on their head?

A

Useful weapons during battles with other males other competition for resources.

227
Q

How does a typical university professor spend their time?

A

40% teaching, 40% research, and 20% service (committees, research programs, etc.).

228
Q

What is Dan Mennill’s research about birds?

A

Study the process of vocal learning in a wild bird (NOT IN THE LAB, its habitat).

229
Q

Research framework

A

Acoustic communication <> Behavioural ecology <> Animal conservation

230
Q

Explain how sound playback works.

A

Use a loud speaker to stimulate a certain animal, they see how other animals interact with it.

231
Q

Explain how a wildlife recording works.

A

Records sounds.

232
Q

Explain how radio telemetry works.

A

Catch a bird, put a radio tag on it with a backpack like device that wraps around its legs, and then send it back into the wild.

233
Q

What is vocal learning?

A

Young animals need to be exposed to adult sounds during a critical early window in their life if the animal is ever able to produce normal adult sounds when growing up.

234
Q

What six groups of animals need to experience vocal learning?

A

Songbirds, hummingbirds, parrots, cetaceans, bats, and humans.

235
Q

Sensory phase

A

A sensitive phase near the beginning of an animal’s life when they need to hear adult sound in order to produce it.

236
Q

Silent period

A

Many undergo this (humans DON’T), when they are migrating or just trying to survive.

237
Q

Sensorimotor phase

A

The babbling, where the young produce lousy interpretations of the adult’s noise. Poor copies of adult sound that get better with practice.

238
Q

Crystallization

A

One day (happens quickly) where neural activity become fixed and neural connections become rigid, staying that way for the rest of their life. Much harder to learn new sound.

239
Q

List the processes, in order, that are involved in vocal learning.

A

Sensory phase > silent period > sensorimotor phase > crystallization

240
Q

What bird is studied the most in vocal learning?

A

Zebra finch

241
Q

Do birds have a dialect?

A

Yes, as they learn a song where they are born and migrate elsewhere, still producing the same sound they heard early on.

242
Q

Sound spectogram

A

Way of visualizing music.

243
Q

What bird did Dan Mennill study for vocal learning?

A

The Savannah sparrow.

244
Q

Where did Dan Mennill study the Savannah sparrow?

A

A Bowdoin scientific station in Kent Island, New Brunswick.

245
Q

How long is the bird out of the net?

A

2-5 minutes

246
Q

What do they collect from birds?

A
  1. Feather samples = genetic analysis and chemical analysis based on where they were
  2. Blood sample = related and questions about inbreeding or paternity
  3. Bands their legs (unique identifier; BRO, black, red, orange is their name )
247
Q

What does the silver band on the bird’s leg mean?

A

Canadian Wildlife service, all have to have it (not included in the name)

248
Q

Why does Dan study the birds in that specific location?

A

Because Savannah sparrows in that location have strong natal site philopatry, which means birds that are born there return there after migration (quick rare).

249
Q

Why do birds leave home for a bit or forever?

A

To mix genetics with other populations to avoid inbreeding.

250
Q

When do Savannah Sparrows hatch?

A

June

251
Q

How long do Savannah Sparrows stay on the island before migration?

A

For three months, leaving in September.

252
Q

When do Savannah Sparrows return back to the island? Differences between male and females?

A

Males return in mid April and females arrive two or three weeks later.

253
Q

When do Savannah Sparrows mate?

A

May

254
Q

How long do Savannah Sparrows live?

A

2 1/2 years

255
Q

When do the Savannah Sparrows sing?

A

Common during the breeding period (mid April-September), then they don’t vocalize themselves during the winter.

256
Q

When do male Savannah Sparrows sing?

A

Most at dawn

257
Q

When do male Savannah Sparrows sing the most when females arrive? Why?

A

Most at dusk because the females are arriving at night from other places (when they fly the most).

258
Q

Explain what Dan Mennill did with the songbirds.

A
  1. Used a loudspeaker to play back Savannah Sparrow’s songs from different places (slightly different)
  2. Played from the time these birds were hatched and then to the time of migration
  3. Played back again when young males arrived and until females arrived back
    (broadcasting during youth and early adulthood)
  4. Chased birds with omnidirectional microphone to see which songs they sang (learned a song or just the normal ones)
259
Q

What is Dan Mennill’s hypothesis?

A

Wild animals learn songs by listening to conspecific tutor songs.

260
Q

Was Dan’s hypothesis proven true?

A

Yees, L.BL almost matched stimulus 07 and Y.YL almost stimulus 10. Overall, thirty birds crystallized sings that matched stimuli. They had learn these songs from early on in life.

261
Q

How did Dan Mennill’s bird show generational learning?

A

Four birds learned songs from other subjects, revealing two generations of vocal learning.

262
Q

Did birds sing same song the whole time?

A

No four birds sang experimental songs for only a few weeks, and committed to only one song the rest of their life (usually the first one).

263
Q

Did the experiment change the bird’s behaviours?

A

NOPE, all experimental birds defended a territory and attracted a mate, and there was no significant difference in longevity.

264
Q

Dan Mennill’s re-exposure hypothesis?

A

Animals will learn songs that are heard both early in life and prior to first breeding season.

265
Q

How did Dan Mennill test his re-exposure hypothesis?

A

3 stimuli:
1. Songs only played in summer
2. Songs only played in spring
3. Songs play in both the summer and spring

266
Q

What were the results of the re-exposure hypothesis for Dan Mennill?

A

Most birds learned songs heard early in life and those re-exposed to later (90%). About 10% learned songs only heard in their youth (don’t have to hear it again after migrating). No birds produced a song only in spring. Exposure is needed during the youth.

267
Q

Overproduction in the Savannah sparrows.

A

Birds often over-produced songs early in year one (in the first spring they sang multiple types of song, but most likely chose the first one again).

268
Q

Selective attrition hypothesis

A

After over-production, animals will retain songs most similar to their neighbours.

269
Q

What did Dan Mennill find for the selective attrition hypothesis?

A

When comparing the overproduced songs to those of their neighbours, the one that best matched was retained (lowest numbers)

270
Q

What did the acoustic similarity and aggression score of males for the Savannah sparrows show?

A

The more similar their song is to other males the less fights they got into.

271
Q

How do overproduction and selective attrition structure geographic variation?

A

Drives a dialect and ends up in pockets of similar sounding individuals.

272
Q

What can an Australian redback spider kill?

A

Small vertebrates like lizards.

273
Q

How do the Australian redback spider male and female differ?

A

Female = marble size with a black colour
Male = grain size and brownish

274
Q

Sexual dimorphism

A

Changes in appearance between male and female of the same species
ex. Australian redback spider

275
Q

What did Niko Tinbergen?

A

The founding figure of the study of behaviour of animals

276
Q

What are the four questions Tinbergen said about behaviour?

A
  1. Causation (sensory-motor mechanism); How does it function at molecular, physiological, neural, and cognitive level?
  2. Ontogeny (developmental changes); How does it change with age and what are the development steps?
  3. Evolution (phylogenetic history); How does it compare in closely related species?
  4. Function (adaptive significance); How does it impact the animal’s chances of survival and reproduction?
277
Q

Proximate questions

A

Specific, immediate questions like hormones and how it changes.
ex. causation, ontogeny

278
Q

Ultimate questions

A

Are these large questions
ex. evolution and function

279
Q

How do Australian redback spiders mate?

A

Male enters the nest and produces vibrations, which the female senses and moves towards. He inserts his insemination devices into her, flips on top of her, so his abdomen is right in her mouth, and she starts chewing on him while they are populating (sometimes killing him).

280
Q

Australian redback spider: Causation?

A

Females attract males with phermones, males court females with vibrations.

281
Q

Australian redback spider: Ontogeny?

A

Males reach sexual maturity in three months, females mature in four months.

282
Q

Australian redback spider: Evolution?

A

Other closely-related spider species exhibit this “sexual cannibalism.”

283
Q

Australian redback spider: Function?

A

Males achieve higher reproductive success by sacrificing themselves because it takes the females more time when eating, transferring more sperm into her.

284
Q

What happens when new male lions take over another pride?

A

They typically kill all cubs less than one year old.

285
Q

Male lions: Causation?

A

Adult males recognize unrelated cubs by unfamiliar odour, triggering aggression.

286
Q

Male lions: Ontogeny?

A

Males reach sexual maturity at 3 years and can take over another pride at 4.

287
Q

Male lions: Evolution?

A

Three other panthera species (tiger, leopards, jaguars) are more solitary (DON’T do this, leave alone)

288
Q

Male lions: Function?

A

Females enter estrus sooner if they no longer have a dependent cub. Forces the females biologically rhythms to enter sexual reproduction increasing the male’s fitness.

289
Q

Fitness

A

The contribution an individual’s offspring make to the genetic make-up of subsequent generations. Survival and reproductive success.

290
Q

How do you evaluate fitness?

A

By examining relative reproductive success.

291
Q

How do Darwin finches relate to reproductive fitness?

A

Drought = animals with large beaks were able to reproduce more
No drought (warm) = animals with small beaks reproduced more often

292
Q

Is fitness for a whole species?

A

No, it’s an attribute of an individual, quantifying that individual’s reproduction.

293
Q

Natural selection

A

Selection that favours traits that maximize an individual’s chance of surviving and reproducing

294
Q

Sexual selection

A

Selection that maximizes the number of fertilizations or matings

295
Q

Viability selection

A

Selection that maximizes the survival of an individual (trait).

296
Q

Explain a bumblebees foraging behaviour.

A

Remember the location of good foraging areas and return to them.

297
Q

Why is choice of food a cost-benefit decision?

A

Decide if to look in this area and grab food, or take time and risk predation.

298
Q

How do grey squirrels avoid predation?

A

Carry large, but not small, food items to cover of safety to eat.

299
Q

Explain a parasitism relationship with the Nematode and ant.

A

Nematode worm causes ants to develop berry-like abdomen. They can still live, but infected by the worm, reproducing in their stomach.

300
Q

Is parasitism a mutual relationship?

A

No, usually changing the behaviour of the host for the worse.

301
Q

What are brood parasites?

A

The parasitize the parental activities of other species.

302
Q

How do parents react to brood parasites?

A

They have a high selective pressure in recognizing the parasitic young.

303
Q

Explain brood parasites with a European cuckoo.

A

Grey warbler create a nest with their eggs and European cuckoos lay their eggs in a nest when the host is gone (removes an egg). Sometimes, they try to match the colour of their egg to the eggs already in the nest. The eggs hatch quicker, and embryos can move other eggs out of the nest and become a child to the parasite.

304
Q

Intrasexual selection

A

Competition between members of the same sex (usually males) for access to the other sex
ex. large size is advantageous in battles of male elephant seals (aggression)

305
Q

Intersexual selection

A

Members of one sex (usually females) discriminating among possible mates
ex. peacocks

306
Q

Bateman’s principle

A

In sexually reproducing species, variability in reproductive success is greater in males than females.
-> no matter the number of mates for a female, she will still produce the same amount of children in her life
–> male fitness increases if it attracts more and more mates

307
Q

What is female reproductive success limited by?

A

The number of offspring they can bear in their life.

308
Q

What is male reproductive success limited by?

A

Access to females.

309
Q

How does the investment of females and males to offspring differ?

A

Females offer greater investment to offspring as carrying the children and usually take care after birth.

310
Q

What is more important: reproduction or survival?

A

Reproduction
ex. the longer a male Australian redback sat in the female’s mouth the more kids he produced

311
Q

Ornamentation

A

Visual displays, and acoustic and pheromone signals in males increase desirability by females.
–> females usually choose superior mates when the choose the more ornamentation one

312
Q

For sexual dimorphism, how do males and females differ?

A

Males are the more extravagant because they have more pressure to get picked.

313
Q

Lek-based mating systems

A

Where males gather in order to display to females their ornament to get picked as a mate
ex. cock-of-the-rock

314
Q

What are the advantages of group living?

A

Enhanced predator detection, defense from predators, defense from competitors, etc.
ex. meerkats gather together to avoid snakes

315
Q

What are the disadvantages of group living?

A

Increased competition and increased risk of infection.

316
Q

Eusocial organisms

A

Live in groups and some prefer not to breed, but help those within the group to breed by.
ex. insects

317
Q

How do eusocial organisms adapt?

A

They have high levels of social developments with specialized phenotypes
ex. leaf cutter ants (larger = cut the leafs, small = carry the leafs, larger than can’t cut = defend ants bringing the food back to the queen; ONLY produce).

318
Q

Kin selection

A

Natural selection that favours genetic contribution to future generations through altruistic behaviours with close relatives
ex. naked mole rats live cooperative groups where a single female breeds

319
Q

How does kin selection help you pass on your genes?

A

Can share 50% of genome with offspring if you are clones, or 25% if not clones.

320
Q

Why do animals chose kin selection?

A

Cost to the organism such as a loss of fitness.

321
Q

Physiology

A

The study of the functions of organisms and their parts.

322
Q

Ecophysiology

A

The study of how organisms function in their environment

323
Q

Is ecophysiology one singular field?

A

No, it’s an integrative field that strives to unite subunits of biology.

324
Q

Where are the extreme temperatures on Earth found?

A

Polar regions and the tropics/hot springs.

325
Q

What is thermobiology?

A

The ability of organisms to regulate themselves in the temperature of environment.
ex. deep sea bacteria live at 100 degrees OR snowshoe hare maintain 39 body temp living at -40 degrees

326
Q

Metabolism

A

The chemical processes within living organisms that maintain life.
ex. plants survive with only light, CO2, and H20 whereas animals need their energy from plants

327
Q

Aerobic metabolism

A

Oxygen is involved in converting carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins to ATP in the mitochondria

328
Q

Anaerobic metabolism

A

Lower efficiency production of ATP without oxygen
ex. cleaving ATP out of long chain carbs
- use it in intense exercise

329
Q

How do measure metabolic rates?

A

Oxygen consumption for aerobic and heat production for anaerobic.

330
Q

Ectotherms

A

Organisms that rely on the external environment as the primary source of heat
ex. amphibians and reptiles
frogs are inactive during the winter

331
Q

What are the speeds of metabolic rates of ectotherms?

A

Slower metabolic rates

332
Q

Can ectotherms survive long periods?

A

Yes, with little food

333
Q

What happens to ectotherms in cold climates?

A

They have cold-adapted enzymes.

334
Q

Endotherms

A

Organisms that rely on the heat from their own metabolism to bring their body to the correct temp (warmth)
ex. us and mammals

335
Q

What is the benefit and cost of endotherms?

A

Benefit = can remain active in cool environments do to fast metabolic rates
Cost = require food to do this

336
Q

How do endotherms retain heat?

A

By insulation and circulatory system.
ex. great fat layers and hair

337
Q

For thermoregulation, does this cost energy?

A

Yes for endotherms it requires a great amount of energy.

338
Q

Homeotherms

A

Organisms that maintain constant body temp.
ex. humans

339
Q

Heterotherms

A

Those that cannot maintain a steady body temp
ex. usually bask in the sun to maintain temp

340
Q

How is a sphynx moth an endotherm and ectotherm?

A

Ecto = like all insects needs the sun to heat themselves
Endo/hetero = speed up their temp by muscle contraction when moving great distances

341
Q

How much of metabolized energy released as heat?

A

Three quarters

342
Q

What does brown adipose tissue do?

A

Releases heat without producing ATP
ex. in small mammals like mice

343
Q

What does effective thermoregulation require?

A

Ability to conserve heat using insulation

344
Q

What can work as insulators?

A

Hair and feathers

345
Q

Counter-current exchange

A

Minimises heat loss in extremities as veins and arteries sit side by side (so warm blood in arteries can pass by and heat can pass into the veins, so venus blood is much warmer).
ex. birds in their legs standing in cold waters

346
Q

How do organisms respond to the cold?

A
  1. Rapid muscle contractions (shivering) to produce heat
  2. Vasoconstriction reduces heat loss (keeps blood in the animal as it doesn’t go to much extremities)
  3. Muscles contract to fluff up feathers or fur when cold (ex. goosebumps), insulating the animal
347
Q

How do organisms respond to the heat?

A
  1. Sweating and panting (evaporation cools)
  2. Vasodilation, especially in large-area organs such as ears
  3. Reduction of metabolic rate
  4. Seeking shade
348
Q

Torpor

A

Relatively short-term condition of decreased activity ( to get warm)
ex. bats reduce body temps at day (protect energy stores)

349
Q

Hibernation

A

Long-term conditions of decreased activity in cold temps (heart rate and breathing slow down so body temp goes to near freezing)

350
Q

Estivation

A

Decreased activity in hot temps

351
Q

Are bears hibernators?

A

No they do not change as their body temp does not decrease. They eat a lot in the fall to build up fat reserves.

352
Q

Antifreeze proteins

A

Substances which reducing the freezing point by dehydrating the cyto to avoid crystals
ex. wood frogs can freeze solid in the winter bc of the proteins inside the cytoplasm of each cell

353
Q

Can we freeze ourselves?

A

No because ice crystals destroy our cells.

354
Q

Gas exchange

A

Diffusion of gases where oxygen (mito respiration) and carbon dioxide move past one another (leave).

355
Q

Are oxygen transport systems everywhere?

A

No, in small insects it is very simple
ex. in bees no heart or pump and has a tracheal system that has two vessels that move from one side to the other

356
Q

What are organs for gas exchange?

A

Lungs and gills

357
Q

Why is energy needed to move water over exchange surfaces?

A

More viscous than air

358
Q

What happens to gas exchange when water is cold?

A

Lost of heat

359
Q

What is included in each filament of the gills?

A

Counter current exchange to avoid heat loss from cold water.

360
Q

What is a problem in dry climates?

A

Water loss due to evaporation

361
Q

Respiratory pigments

A

Those that allow more gas transport in body fluids
ex. hemoglobin allows 4 oxygen molecules per unit

362
Q

Who are pigments important in?

A

Those with a high metabolic rate

363
Q

What do plants need?

A

Light, CO2, water, mineral nutrients, suitable temperature.

364
Q

What are the plant stressors?

A

Overheating, freezing, drought, anoxic soils, acquire CO2 without losing too much water, and excessive radiation or shade.

365
Q

Light reaction of photosynthesis

A

Absorption of sun’s energy produces ATP and NADPH (required to turn CO2 into glucose) and O2 is released from water

366
Q

Dark reaction of photosynthesis

A
  1. ATP and NADPH is used to fix CO2 as sugars in the Calvin cycle
  2. The first product is a molecule with 3 carbon atoms (3-phosphoglyceric acid) and the process is called C3 photosynthesis
367
Q

Can the dark reaction of photosynthesis occur during light?

A

Yes, it an occur during the daytime but doesn’t use light.

368
Q

Photorespiration

A

Some plants can use O2 as a substrate for photosynthesis instead of CO2

369
Q

When does photorespiration occur?

A

When CO2 is low, O2 is high, or temperatures are low

370
Q

Why did C4 evolve to avoid photorespiration?

A

Because it is an energy-wasting reaction
ex. corn and prairie grasses

371
Q

What is the alternative pathway of C4 plants?

A

Fix CO2 in mesophyll cells as a molecule with 4 carbon atoms (malate) then transport it to bundle sheath cells where oxygen is absent.

372
Q

What does the C4 pathway aid in?

A

Water efficiency

373
Q

Stoma

A

Plant openings to breath in the CO2, and dump out O2

374
Q

Where are stoma located?

A

On the leaf, most likely on the underside of the plant.

375
Q

Xylem and phloem

A

Xy = transport water
Ph = products of photosynthesis

376
Q

Where does C4 photosynthesis occur?

A

Right in the middle of the lead

377
Q

Bundle sheath

A

Tubes that surround the xylem and phloem.

378
Q

What happens after C4?

A

Calvin cycle

379
Q

Where does calvin cycle occur?

A

In bundle-sheath cells

380
Q

What is released in the calvin cycle?

A

CO2

381
Q

When does the calvin cycle take place?

A

Converting into larger carbons once it is far away from the stoma

382
Q

What is the problem with using stomatas?

A

Leads to increased water loss when trying to attain CO2

383
Q

What do plants do to their stomata under dry condition?

A

They close it

384
Q

What is the purpose of CAM photosynthesis?

A

To reduce loss of water

385
Q

Explain CAM photosynthesis.

A
  • stomata open at night when air humidity is high
  • CO2 is fixed as malate stored in vacuoles
  • stomata close during the day
  • CO2 is released from the malate for Calvin cycle
386
Q

Where does fixation of CO2 occur in C4 plants? What does this minimize?

A

Different location than the Calvin cycle, minimising photo respiration

387
Q

Where does fixation of CO2 occur in CAM plants? What does this minimize?

A

Done at a different time than the Calvin cycle, minimising moisture loss

388
Q

What are examples of CAM plants?

A

Succulents, including cacti

Ecology (3 decks)

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