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Psychology 201 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is Psychology?

A

A science based on evidence that studies the mind, brain, and behavior

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2
Q

Levels of analysis (3)

A

Lower levels: tied to biological influences (the brain)
Higher levels: tied to social and cultural influences (the mind)
ex: neurons to neighborhoods - study the bridges and roads and how they connect

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3
Q

Levels of Analysis (6)

A

Depression example
1. social
2. behavioral
3. mental
4. neurological/psychological
5. neurochemical
6. molecular

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4
Q

Levels of analysis - depression example

A
  1. social - loss of important personal relationships, lack of social support
  2. behavioral - decrease in pleasurable activities, move and talking slowly, withdrawal
  3. mental - depressed thoughts, sad feelings, suicidal thoughts
  4. neurological/psychological - differences among people in the size and functioning of brain structures related to mood
  5. neurochemical - differences in levels of brain chemistry
  6. molecular - variations in people’s genes that predispose depression
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5
Q

Five challenges of psychology

A
  1. human behavior are multiply determined
    2.psychological influences are rarely independent
  2. people differ from each other in thinking, emotion, personality, and behavior
  3. people influence each other = difficulty in pinning down root cause
  4. people’s behavior is shaped by culture
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6
Q

What’s the problem with trusting our common sense?

A

We never notice the contradictions until other people point them out to use

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7
Q

Nieve Realism

A

belief that we see the world precisely as it is

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8
Q

Scientific method in relation to relationship to empiricism

A
  • the premise that all knowledge should initially be acquired through observation
    -observation isn’t enough for psychological knowledge
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9
Q

theory vs hypothesis

A

theory: explanation for large number of findings in the natural world (ie. existing data, and putting ways we think to how things work)

hypothesis: testable prediction derived from a theory (used to accept/deny the theory)

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10
Q

theory vs strength of evidence

A
  • theory is consistent with many differing
  • theory doesn’t tell evidence
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11
Q

Role of biases in science

A

becoming aware of bias helps scientists compensate for them

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12
Q

confirmation bias

A

tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or history evidence that contradicts them

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13
Q

belief perseverance

A

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

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14
Q

metaphysical claims and their relation to scientific questions

A

assertion about the world that’s not testable

we can never test them about using scientific methods

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15
Q

pseudoscience

A

set of claims that seems scientific but isn’t

they are untestable and there lie outside the realm of science

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16
Q

warnings of pseudo science (8)

A
  1. exaggerated claims
  2. overuse of ad hoc hoc immunizing hypothesis
  3. over reliance on anecdotes
  4. absence of connectivity to other research
  5. lack of review by other scholars or lab replication
  6. lack of self-correction when contrary evidence is published
  7. “psychobabble” using terms that don’t make sense
  8. talk of proof instead of evidence
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17
Q

ad hoc immunizing hypotheses - psychic example

A

the psychic claimed to predict the future, this failed all controlled tests in the lab, but that’s because the experimenters inhibited his extrasensory powers

and escape hatch or loophole that defenders of a theory use to protect their theory from falsification

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18
Q

over reliance of anecdotes

A

this woman practiced daily yoga for three weeks and hasn’t had a day of depression since

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19
Q

lack of self-correction

A

although most scientists say that we use almost all of our brains, we’ve found a way to harness additional brain power previously undiscovered

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20
Q

emotional reasoning

A

error of using our emotions as guides for evaluating the validity of a claim

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21
Q

bandwagon

A

error of assuming that a claim is correct just because many people believe it

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22
Q

either or

A

error of framing a question as though we can only answer it one of two extreme ways

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23
Q

not me

A

error of believing we’re immune from errors in thinking that afflict other people

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24
Q

appeal to authority

A

error of accepting a claim merely because an authority endorses it

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25
Q

genetic (logical fallacy)

A

error of confusing the correctness of a belief with its origins

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26
Q

argument from adverse consequences

A

error of confusing the validity of an idea with its potential real-world consequences

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27
Q

appeal to ignorance

A

error of assuming that a claim must be true because no one has shown it to be false

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28
Q

naturalistic (logical fallacies)

A

error of inferring a moral judgement from a scientific fact

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29
Q

generalization (logical fallacies)

A

error of drawing a conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

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30
Q

circular reasoning

A

error of basing a claim on the same claim reworded in slightly different terms

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31
Q

scientific skepticism

A

approach of evaluating claims with an open mind but insisting of persuasive evidence before accepting them

a willingness to keep an open mind to all claims

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32
Q

cynicism

A

implies a dismissal of claims before we’ve had the opportunity to adequately evaluate them

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33
Q

framework for scientific thinking (6)

A
  1. ruling out rival hypothesis
  2. correlation vs causation
  3. falsifiability
  4. replicability
  5. generalizability
  6. extraordinary claims
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34
Q

correlation vs causation

A

can we be sure that a causes b

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35
Q

falsifiability

A

can the claim be disproved

capable of being disproved in order for it to be meaningful

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36
Q

replicability

A

can the results be duplicated

when a study’s findings are able to be duplicated, ideally by independent investigators

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37
Q

generalizability

A

do these findings and conclusions reflect the diversity of the human experience

western educated industrialized rich democratic societies

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38
Q

extraordinary claims

A

is the evidence as strong as the claim

alien abduction can be true, but we should evaluate the claim

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39
Q

ruling out rival hypothesis

A

have important alternative explanations for the findings have been excluded

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40
Q

correlation versus causation, three ways correlation could be explained casually

A
  1. A-B, it is possible that a causes b
  2. B-A, it is possible that b causes a
  3. C causes both b and a
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41
Q

nature-nature debate

A

are our behaviors mostly to our genes or to our rearing environments

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42
Q

free will determinism debate

A

to what extent are our behaviors freely selected rather than caused by factors outside our control

most of even all of our behaviors are generated without conscious awareness

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43
Q

Intuitive thinking

A

types of snap judgements, quick and reflexive gut haunches

much of everyday life

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44
Q

analytical thinking

A

acquiring complex skills and habits

start with analytical thinking then move to intuitive like driving a car

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45
Q

heuristics

A

a mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps us to streamline out thinking and make sense of our world

this is the connection between research design and analytical and intuitive thinking

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46
Q

Random selection

A

a procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

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47
Q

random selection in relation to generalizability

A

identifying a representative sample of the population, and administer survey drawn from that sample

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48
Q

what is reliability

A

consistency of measurement

if you do the same measurement, do you get the same result?

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49
Q

test-retest reliability

A

reliable questionnaire should yield similar scores over time

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50
Q

interrater reliability

A

extent to which different people who conduct and interview, or make behavioral observations, agree on the characteristics they’re measuring

ink-blot : two different therapists getting two different results on the same ink-blot

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51
Q

what is validity

A

extent to which a measure assess what is purports to measure

buying a package that says iPhone, but opening a watch

you measure what you think you’re measuring

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52
Q

connection between reliability and validity

A

reliability doesn’t guarantee validity

a test must be reliable to be valid, but a reliable test can be completely invalid (polygraph)

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53
Q

openness and transparency in science

A

requirement that they prove the research is replicable and reproducible

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54
Q

replicability

A

ability to duplicate the original findings consistently

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55
Q

reproducibility

A

ability to review and reanalyze the data from a study and find exactly the same results

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56
Q

replication crisis (4)

A

open science movements was inspired by failure to confirm a number of high-profile findings

lack of replicability mean building on shaky ground

replication problems don’t appear to reflect deliberate corruption or fraud

studies built off of each other too quickly without the actual truth - the halo affect can overshadow everything else in the experiment

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57
Q

the steps being taken to address the replication crisis (5)

A
  1. posting and sharing research material
  2. conducting replications of their own and other’s work
  3. pre-register research which induces publicity posting scientific process
  4. encourage editors of scientific journal to publish all sound evidence
  5. place less emphasis on the findings or single studies, no matter how novel or intriguing and more emphasis on systematic review
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58
Q

File drawer problem

A

Rosenthal coined this term to refer to when nonsignificant results are left unpublished

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59
Q

what is naturalistic observation

A

watching behavior in real-world setting without trying to manipulate the situation

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60
Q

naturalistic observation strengths and weaknesses

A

high in external validity - extend to which we can generalize findings to real world settings

low in internal validity - doesn’t allow us to infer causation, extent to which we draw cause and effect inferences from a study

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61
Q

what are case study designs

A

research design that examines one person of a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time

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62
Q

the role of case studies in studying rare phenomena

A

opportunity to study without recreation in a laboratory

people with atypical symptoms or rare types of brain damage

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63
Q

case studies role on generating hypotheses

A

can offer useful insights that researches can follow up on a test in systematic investigations

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64
Q

self-report measures and surveys

A
  • asking person the questionnaire directly (opinions, attitudes, personality traits)
  • easy and cheap to administer
  • addresses blind spots, but has halo effect
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65
Q

Correlational Designs

A

range in value -1.0 to +1.0

-1.0 is a perfect negative correlation
+1.0 is a perfect positive correlation

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66
Q

Illusory correlations/correlation vs causation

A

perception of a statistical association between two variables where none exists

full moon and murder correlation, but ignores times when murder happens when it’s not a full moon

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67
Q

fourfold of life

A
  1. full moon and crime happened
  2. full moon but no crime
  3. no full moon and crime happened
  4. no full moon but no crime
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68
Q

Experimental designs

A

doesn’t allow us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions

BUT they permit experiments

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69
Q

Random assignment

A

experimenter randomly sorts participants into one of two groups

this cancels out preexisting differences between two groups (race, gender, personality traits)

how we assign our participants after we’ve already chosen them

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70
Q

experimental group

A

the group of participants that receives the manipulation

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71
Q

control group

A

the group of participants that does not receive the manipulation

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72
Q

random selection

A

a procedure that allows every person an equal chance to participate

how we choose our participants

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73
Q

independent variable

A

manipulated

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74
Q

dependent

A

measured

depends on the independent

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75
Q

confounding variable

A

any variable that differs between the experimental and control groups other than the independent variable

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76
Q

correlational vs experimental study (chocolate milk study)

A

correlational: researchers merely examined how much chocolate milk people typically drink and examined whether that variable is associated with liver and cancer risk

experimental: participants were randomly assigned to drink lots of chocolate milk or not

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77
Q

placebo affect

A

improvement resulting from mere expectation of improvement

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78
Q

double blind research

A

neither the participant or researcher knows whether the participant is in experimental or control

ELIMINATES BIAS

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79
Q

demand characteristics

A

cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher’s hypothesis

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80
Q

mean

A

average, measure of central tendency

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81
Q

median

A

middle score in a data set

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82
Q

mode

A

most frequent score in a data set

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83
Q

variability

A

measure of how loosely of tightly bunched score are

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84
Q

standard deviation

A

how far each data point is from the mean

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85
Q

inferential statistics

A

mathematical methods that allow us to determine how confident we are that we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population

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86
Q

statistical significance and the meaning of p<0.05

A

probability of results by chance alone is 5 in 100

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87
Q

meta analysis

A

statistical method that analyzes effects across studies to determine consistent patterns of results

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88
Q

practical significance

A

Real world importance

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89
Q

sharpening

A

tendency to exaggerate the gist/central message of a study

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90
Q

leveling

A

tendency to minimize the less central details of a study

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91
Q

EEG

A

electroencephalograph

measures electrical activity as the surface of the skull

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92
Q

EEG strengths and weaknesses

A

s - non invasive, using in human and non-human studies

w - doesn’t tells us a littler deeper or in different regions because it only measures the surface

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93
Q

MRI

A

magnetic resonance imaging

structural detail measuring release of energy from water in biological tissues following exposure to magnetic field

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94
Q

CT

A

computed tomography

3D imaging, reconstruction of multiple x-rays

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95
Q

PET

A

positron emission tomography

measures changes in brain activity in response to stimuli

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96
Q

fMRI

A

functional MRI

uses magnetic field to visualize brain activity using changes in blood oxygen level

brain increased oxygenated blood when brain activity quickens

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97
Q

ways people can misinterpret brain scans

A

images are produced by subtracting brain activity on a control test from brain activity on experimental tasks

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98
Q

TMS

A

transcranial magnetic stimulation can enhance or interrupt brain function in a specific region that allows us to infer causation

99
Q

parts of the neuron (6)

A

cell body, dendrites, axons, axon terminals, synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitters

100
Q

soma

A

cell body, central region

101
Q

dendrites

A

receives signals

102
Q

axons

A

send messages to other neurons

103
Q

synaptic vesicles

A

small spheres travel the axon that contain neurotransmitters

104
Q

axon terminals

A

like a pill capsule, releases axons

105
Q

neurotransmitters

A

chemical messengers that neurons use to communicate with each other

106
Q

synaptic cleft

A

information exchange - space between two connecting neurons

a gap into which neurotransmitters are released from axon terminal

107
Q

glial cells

A

do everything in the brain like contribute to development

guide the brain as it is wiring itself

108
Q

astrocytes

A

protective scaffolding for neurons held by snaps

can help regrowth

formation of myelin and blood-brain barrier

responds to injury, removes debris, facilitates communication among neurons, enhances learning and memory

109
Q

blood brain barrier

A

protective shield of blood vessels that insults the brain from infection

110
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

promotes new connections among nerve cells and releases chemicals in aid to heal

111
Q

myelin sheath

A

protect spinal chord, speeds transmission of electrical signals down axon

nodes help transportation and when transportation is disrupted, messages become scrambled which results in damage to things like coordination

112
Q

role of ions and NM charge

A

electrical responses in neurons depends on uneven distribution of charged particles across the membrane surrounding neurons

113
Q

resting potential

A

no NT acting on neuron

more negative particles inside than outside neuron

114
Q

threshold of excitation

A

electrical charge inside neuron reaches higher level relative to outside of neuron

115
Q

action potential

A

threshold of excitation triggers an electrical impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of NT

116
Q

All or none law

A

change from abrupt waves of electrical discharge triggered by a massive change in charge across the membrane – either all neurons fire of they don’t

117
Q

NT and receptor sites

A

after neurotransmitters are released into the synapse, they bind with receptor sites along the dendrites of neighboring neurons

118
Q

lock and key model

A

receptor sites only receive certain NT and each NT only unlocks its own receptor

119
Q

reuptake

A

recycling NT

120
Q

excitatory and inhibitory NT

A

different neurotransmitters send different messages – excite or inhibit/increase decrease activity

121
Q

Agonists

A

increase or mimic the effect of a NT

codeine and morphine

fit into lock and key into receptors, and block other molecules that want to get into receptor without activating it

122
Q

Antagonists

A

block or decrease effect of NT

ex: fooling receptors thinking they’re dopamine without exerting the effect of NT

ie MIMICS

123
Q

GABA

A

inhibits neurons, dampening neural activity

anti-anxiety, sleep, memory

124
Q

Glutamate

A

communication, rapidly excited neurons increase the odds that they’ll communicate with others

MSG excites and makes tasetebuds more intense

125
Q

acetylcholine

A

arousal, attention, memory, sleep

block the action of NT

benadrul

126
Q

monamines (dopamine)

A

one amino acid

brain areas rich in dopamine activate when they hear a funny joke, activate, or deactivate parts of the brain in reaction to stimuli

127
Q

anandamide - cannabinoids

A

cells manufacture anandamide, eating, motivation, memory, sleep

128
Q

neuropeptides - endorphines

A

short strings of amino acids, pain reaction

human made opioids exert effects by binding to endorphin receptors and mimicking their effects

hunger, satiety, learning, memory

129
Q

endorphines

A

killing pain and increase liking

CREATE EUPHORIA

130
Q

dopamine

A

helps with rewarding experiences, making things feel exciting and motivational pull, wanting

131
Q

plasticity

A

ability of nervous system to change

most flexible during early development

brain changes and grows as we learn which created new synapses, strengthening existing synaptic connection

132
Q

synaptogenesis

A

formation of new synapses

133
Q

pruning

A

consisting of the death of certain neurons and the retraction of axons to remove connections that aren’t useful

schizophrenia is a lack of pruning

134
Q

myelination

A

insulation of axons with a myelin sheath

135
Q

neurogenesis

A

creation of new neurons in adult brain

136
Q

cerebral cortex

A

analyzes sensory information

137
Q

cerebral hemispheres

A

split cortex with two functions

138
Q

corpus callosum

A

connects the two hemispheres

139
Q

gray matter

A

outer layers of the cortex

cell bodies

140
Q

white matter

A

lighter colored axons with myelin sheath

141
Q

lateralization

A

cognitive fufunction that relies more on one side of the brain than the other
- Left: tuned language skills, actions
- Right: coarse langue skills, visuospatial skills

142
Q

frontal lobes

A

forward part of cerebral cortex responsible for motor function, language, decision making and planning

143
Q

somatosensory cortex

A

the region of neocortex specialized to represent and process touch, which includes light touch and proprioception, as well as temperature and pain

regions of the cerebral cortex that initial process information from the senses

144
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

thinking, planning, language

things that make humans human: holding information and effortful self-control

145
Q

functions of the prefrontal cortex

A

Broca’s area, language area in the prefrontal cortex that helps to control speech production

146
Q

parietal lobes

A

upper middle part of the cerebral cortex lying behind the frontal love that is specialized for tough and perception

147
Q

neglect of parietal lobes

A

opposite side of the body from where the damage happened because the path ways cross over to the other side of the body

148
Q

temporal lobes

A

lower part of the cerebral cortex that plays roles in hearing, understanding language, and memory

auditory cortex - top of lobe, devoted to hearing

149
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

next to auditory cortex – language area

150
Q

occipital lobes

A

back of our brain

visual cortex

151
Q

thalamus

A

gateway from the sense organs to the primary sensory cortex

152
Q

hypothalamus

A

below thalamus, located on the floor or the brain

regulates and maintains internal bodily states largely by hormone levels

153
Q

amygdala

A

memories and motivation based on how we feel and interpret emotions

154
Q

hippocampus

A

conscious memory for facts and events, ability to compare sensory information and memories to expectation

mental maps

155
Q

cerebellum

A

mini cortex, sense of balance

156
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

part of the nervous system controlling the involuntary actions of our internal organs and glands which participated in emotion regulation

157
Q

parasympathetic NS

A

division of autonomic nervous system that control rest and digestion

158
Q

sympathetic NS

A

division of the autonomic NS engaged during a crisis or actions requiring fight or flight

159
Q

endocrine system

A

system of glands and hormones that control secretion of blood – borne chemical messengers

160
Q

pituitary gland

A

controls other glands in the body and controlled by hypothalamus

161
Q

adrenal glands

A

emergency centers of the body

located on top of kidneys that releases adrenaline and cortisol during states of emotional arousal

162
Q

adrenaline

A

boosts energy production in muscle cell

163
Q

circadian rhythms

A

cyclical changed that occur on a roughly 24-hour basis in many biological processes

(hormone release, brain waves, body temp, drowsiness)

164
Q

stages of sleep

A
  1. non rem - 5-10 minutes with 50% brain activity with theta waves 4-7/sec
  2. non rem with sudden bursts of electrical activity, spindles 12-14 cycles a second (k-complexes, 65% of sleep
    3/4. non rem delta waves, slower frequency
  3. REM sleep, high gear, high frequency, low amplitude like wakefulness
165
Q

alcohol on sleep

A

Puts us to bed sooner, but makes us more tired the next day because it suppresses delta wave sleep

166
Q

stage of sleep and dreaming

A

More in REM sleep, emotional, illogical, prone to sudden shifts in plot

Non REM dreams are shorter, thought like, and repetitive, everyday tasks

167
Q

REM behavior disorder

A

Brain is active but body is inactive, wed enact our brains if our body wasn’t paralyzed

people act our their dreams because REM doesn’t paralyze them, because brain stem structures don’t function properly

168
Q

sleep paralysis

A

State of being unable to move just after falling asleep or right before waking up

169
Q

paranormal and hypnosis and paralysis

A

Many students who were interviewed had history of sleep paralysis

Hypnosis – therapists used hypnosis to assist them in recovering memories (not trustworthy and can create false memories)

170
Q

incubus phenomenon

A

10% of adults report to have experienced, sleeping person feels awake but hallucinates and animal or human that lies of thorax and carries out aggressive/sexual acts

Different in other cultures: ghosts, elderly witch, dead spirits,

171
Q

lucid dreaming

A

Experiencing of becoming aware that one is dreaming

Parts of cerebral cortex associtated with self-perceptions and evaluating thoughts and feelings rev up with activity

172
Q

insomnia

A

Trouble falling asleep (30 minutes), waking too early in the morning, waking up during the night and having trouble returning to sleep

173
Q

causes of insomnia

A

Correlation – depression, continual pain

Brief bouts – result of stress and relationship problems, medications and illness, working late or variable shifts, jet lag, caffeine, napping during the day

174
Q

ways to address insomnia

A

Sleep in cold room, hide clocks, avoid naps and caffeine during day, going on internet before bed

175
Q

affects of ambien

A

Preparing and eating raw food, walking, making phone calls, driving while asleep, creating dependency

176
Q

narcolepsy

A

bouts of sudden sleep lasting from a few seconds to several minutes, causing sleep at any moment throughout the day

Suffering from serious depression or social anxiety

177
Q

cataplexy

A

complete loss of muscle tone after narcolepsy, muscles become limp

178
Q

night terrors

A

Sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiration, and confusion, followed by return to deep sleep

NON REM and almost exclusively in children, occasionally in adults under intense stress

179
Q

sleepwalking

A

Acts like a fully awake person, but clumsier, typically starting in childhood

Not acting out dreams because it almost always occurs during non REM sleep

180
Q

Freuds dream protection theory

A

Like a steam engine – if we push our illnesses down, they will have to come out in some way, he thought they would come out in a dream

Way of subconscious of letting out aggressive tendencies without using live senses

181
Q

Manifest vs latent

A

o Manifest content – the dream itself
o Latent content – hidden meaning
o Dream about getting a flat tire (manifest), might signify anxiety about lost off the status at our job (latent)

182
Q

activation synthesis theory

A

Dreams reflect from brain activity – activity that gets relayed to forebrain and it tries its best to make something of it

like Alice and wonderland, activating random things- emotional

183
Q

PONs

A

o Balance of NT shifts throughout the day, REM sleep turned on by acetylcholine as serotonin and norepinephrine shut down
o AC activates nerve cells in pons at base of brain, serotonin and NE decrease reflective through, reasoning, attention, memory
o The pons send incomplete signals to thalamus (relay station for sensory info) to the language and visual areas of forebrain
o Amygdala is fired up, bringing in emotion

184
Q

forebrain in dreams

A

damage can lead to complete loss of dreaming

Seems to refute the claim of activation synthesis, that it plays an exlusive role in dreaming

185
Q

Domhoff’s dream theory

A

TRUE

dreams are often rather ordinary, relating to waking concerns, stable over time, reflect lived experiences, and realistic

about brain trying to practice problems about everyday life to come up with a solution

186
Q

visual hallucination

A

Visual cortex is activated, hearing and touch

Visual hallucianations can be brought by oxygen and sensory deprivation, epilepsy, fever, dementia and migraines

187
Q

verbal hallucination

A

Auditory can occur when patients mistakenly attribute their thougts/inner speech to an external source

188
Q

auditory verbal hallucinations

A

Psychotic experience negative and non-controllable voices (schizophrenia)

Teach patients skills to help them notice, accept and view disturbing hallucinations as nothing more than massing mental events

189
Q

OBE

A

o Sense of our consciousness leaving our body
o Research has found no evidence that consciousness exists outside the body
o People who have OBEs frequently have vivid fantasies and lucid dreams

190
Q

neurological underpinnings of OBE

A

Senses of touch and vision are scrambled

the result is a disruption of our experience of our physical body with similiarites to an OBE

191
Q

NDE

A

¼ of patients with NDE experience their consciousness outside their bodies

Changes in chemistry associated with cardiac arrest, anesthesia, other physical traumas: massive release of serotonin

192
Q

hypnosis

A

interpersonal situation in which imaginative suggestions are administered to produce changes in consciousness

193
Q

hypnosis induction

A

ritual that marks the proceedings as hypnosis and creates positive expectations that follow

194
Q

hypnosis myth 2

A

hypnotic phenomena are unique

have not yet identified any unique physiological sates or behavior markers of hypnosis

195
Q

hypnosis myth 4

A

hypnosis is a sleeplike state

people who are hypnotized don’t show brain waves similar to those of sleep

196
Q

hypnosis myth 5

A

forget what happened during hypnosis

spontaneous smnesia is rare and limited to people who epect to be amnesic following hypnosis

197
Q

hypnosis myth 6

A

enhances memory - it doesn’t but it does increase the amount of information we recall but its mostly innacurate

doesn’t tell us whether hypnosis was responsible for what the driver remembered, he maybe recalled the event because people remember additional detailes after multiple tries

198
Q

sociocognative theory

A

Approach to explaining hypnosis based on people’s attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and responsiveness to waking suggestions

199
Q

habituation

A

proves of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli

New York – people getting used to city noise after living there

200
Q

sensitization

A

responding more strongly over time to repeated stimuli

Abuse, for me zipper during SAT

201
Q

classical conditioning

A

a process of repeated association

dog with meat powder and drooling - came to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that elicits an automatic response

202
Q

neutral stimulus - dog

A

used a metronome (doesn’t elicit a particular response)

203
Q

unconditioned stimulus

A

elicits an automatic/reflexive response (meat powder)

204
Q

unconditioned response

A

automatic/reflexive response (salivation)

Animal doesn’t need to learn to respond to the unconditioned stimulus in response to food

Generated unconditioned response w/o any training, product of nature

205
Q

conditioned response

A

response previously associated with a nonneutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning

(metronome now caused salivation)

206
Q

conditioned stimulus

A

previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response as a result of its association with an unconditioned stimulus

(dog now salivates after hearing metronome)

207
Q

extinction in classical conditioning

A

CR decreases in magnitude when CS is repeatedly presented alone

(without the UCS) (metronome w/o meat powder, dog stopped salivating)

208
Q

spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning

A

seemingly extinct CR reappears if we present the CS again, hours or days later

Sudden reemergence of an extinct conditioned response after a delay in exposure to the conditioned stimulus

209
Q

renewal effect

A

occurs when we extinguish a response in a setting different from one in which the animal acquired it (animal to original setting)

Treating phobias in setting they appear in

210
Q

stimulus generalization

A

Process by which CSs that are similar to the original CS elicit a CR

211
Q

generalization gradient

A

The more similar to the original CS the new CS is, the stronger the Cr is

212
Q

stimulus discrimination

A

Why we can enjoy scary movies, respond much more strongly if it was in real life

Process by which organisms display a less pronounced conditioned response to CS that differ from original CS

213
Q

higher order conditioning

A

Process by which organisms develop classically conditioned responses to previously neutral stimuli that later become associated with the original CS

Allow us to extend classical conditioning to a host of new stimuli

214
Q

advertising and pleasurable stimuli

A

pair products with pleasurable stimuli

215
Q

disgust reactions

A

Tied to stimuli that are biologically important to us, like animals or object that are dirty or potentially poisonous (fudge example)

216
Q

operant conditioning

A

OC response is emitted, generated by the organism in a seemingly voluntary fashion

OC – animals reward is dependent of what it does

OC – depend on skeletal muscles

217
Q

Stimulus-Response

A

If a response in the presence of a stimulus, is followed by a satisfying state of affairs the bond between stimulus and response will be strengthened

If were rewarded, were more likely to do it again

218
Q

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

A

First placement in box, cat made frantic effort to escape and got to their food

Over 60 trials – cat didn’t have an aha moment, but learned through trial and error through SR associations

Solution came gradually over time

219
Q

Skinner’s Box

A

The box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever.

Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.

TASK REWARD

220
Q

positive reinforcement

A

administer a stimulus to strengthen probability of behavior

giving child something they enjoy for picking up toys

presenting a stimulus

221
Q

negative reinforcement

A

remove a stimulus that strengthens the probability of behavior

ending a child’s dislikes after they’ve stopped whining

removing a stimulus

222
Q

positive punishment

A

administering a stimulus that the organism wants to avoid – a physical shock or taking cell phone away

presenting astimulus

223
Q

negative punishment

A

removal of stimulus that the organism wished to experience

removing a stimulus

224
Q

discriminative stimulus OR

A

stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement

225
Q

Acquisition

A

learning phase during which a response is established

226
Q

Extinction OR

A

gradual reduction and eventual elimination of a response after a stimulus is presented repeatedly (when we top delivering reinforcers following a previously reinforced behavior, it gradually declines)

227
Q

Spontaneous recovery OR

A

sudden reemergence of an extinguish response after a delay

228
Q

stimulus generalization OR

A

displaying a response to stimuli similar to but not identical to the original stimulus

229
Q

Stimulus discrimination OR

A

displaying a less pronounced response to stimuli that differ from the original stimulus

230
Q

continuous reinforcement

A

reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs, resulting in a faster learning but faster extinction that only occasional reinforcement

231
Q

partial reinforcement

A

occasional reinforcement of behavior, resulting in slower extinction that if the behavior had been reinforced continually

232
Q

ratio schedule

A

animal is reinforced on the basis of number of responses its emitted (higher rates of responding than interval)

How often you do the behavior – for every certain number of lever pulls, you get rewarded

233
Q

interval schedule

A

reinforced on the basis of amount of time elapsed since last reinforcement

If you pull the lever after a certain amount of time, then youll be rewarded

234
Q

fixed reinforcement

A

reinforcement occurs on a regular basis, every third video was good – rewarded a set number of times

Getting good grade after exam, studying

235
Q

variable reinforcement

A

irregular (highest), not getting rewarded every time creates behavior every time through faith of eventually being rewarded

About every third video but sometimes three videos in a role

236
Q

shaping - animal training

A

conditioning a target behavior by progressively reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target

237
Q

chaining

A

trainers link a number of interrelated behaviors to form a longer series, where each behavior is a cue for the next

Pigeon ping pong
1. Reinforced them to turning toward paddles, approaching paddles, holding paddles in beaks…

238
Q

token economies

A

systems often set up in psychiatric hospitals, reinforcing appropriate behaviors and extinguishing inappropriate ones

239
Q

Applied behavior analysis

A

helps kids with autism

makes extensive use of shaping techniques in which they offer food and other reinforcers as they reach progressively closer approximations to certain words and complete sentences

240
Q

Tolman’s research

A

o He thought reinforcement wasn’t everything of learning
o Latent learning – learning that’s not directly observable
o Randomly assigned 3 groups of rats to go thorugh a maze over 3 week period
 One group got cheese at the end
 Other group got none
 Third got cheese after 10 days

241
Q

Bobo Doll

A

o Learning by watching others: parents, teachers, friends
o Asked preschool children to watch adult interact with a doll – model acted aggressively to doll with one group and nice with the other
 Then group went to another room with toys and got interrupted, brought to another room with the dolls to see their behavior

242
Q

Psychomythology - retrieved memories

A

Biggest myth is that psychomythology can help people retrieve memories as far back as birth

243
Q

Psychomythology - age regression

A

Age regressed adults don’t show the expected patterns on many indices of development

they act the way they think children should act

244
Q

Psychomythology - past lives

A

therapeutic approach that uses hypnosis to supposedly age-regress patients to a previous life to identify the source of a present day problem

Psychology 201 (1 decks)

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