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BIOL 450 Marine Biology > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

what is marine biology

A
  • the study of organisms that live in the sea, including all water that has some degree of salinity, like the estuaries at river mouths
  • Marine biology is not a separate science. It is an applied field of biology and incorporates many other sciences
  • Oceanographers typically study the non-living components of the ocean whereas marine biologists study living organisms
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2
Q

what is functional biology

A
  • How an organism carries out basic functions, e.g., reproduction
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3
Q

what is ecology and evolution

A
  • factors involved in distribution, abundance and appearance of organisms
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4
Q

what is biodiversity

A
  • number of species
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5
Q

Beagle Voyage

A

-charles darwin
- circumnavigated world, theory of coral reef subsidence (among many others)

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6
Q

challenger voyage

A
  • First major exploration devoted to the study of marine organisms.
  • The crew discovered thousands of species previously undescribed and published 50 volumes of information from the data collected over the next 19 years
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7
Q

what are tools in modern marine biology

A
  • remote sensing
  • sonar
  • scuba
  • remotely operated vehicles (ROV)
  • research vessels
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8
Q

what is remote sensing

A

Satellites are used to study large expanses of the ocean surface

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9
Q

what is sonar

A

Used to map seafloor depths and formations

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10
Q

what is scuba

A

Used for the study of the marine environment for longer periods and at depths otherwise unavailable to humans

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11
Q

what is ROV

A

Allows for direct exploration of the marine environment when scuba is not an option

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12
Q

what are research vessels

A

These floating laboratories allow oceanographers and marine biologists to explore the marine environments for weeks, months, or even years without returning to a land-based facility

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13
Q

why is so much still unknown

A
  • Cold, dark, high pressure low oxygen environment
  • Immense ancient environment
  • Scientific progress is highly dependent on technological innovations
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14
Q

what is littoral

A

where the tide goes in and out

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15
Q

what is sublittoral/shelf/subtidal

A
  • region of ocean floor that is below the lowest point of the tide
  • usually very productive
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16
Q

what is bathyal

A

region between shelf and abyssal

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17
Q

what is abyssal

A

region after bathyal but before hadal (very very deep region)

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18
Q

what is hadal

A

below 6000 m

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19
Q

what is neritic

A

water above the shelf

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20
Q

what is oceanic

A

water not above the shelf

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21
Q

what is epipelagic

A
  • water at the very top
  • above 200m
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22
Q

what is the photic zone

A
  • water where photosynthesis can take place
  • up to 200m
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23
Q

what is mesopelagic

A

-200m - 700/1000m
- no photosynthesis but some animals with big eyes can see
-twilight zone

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24
Q

what is bathypelagic

A
  • 700/1000m - 2000/4000m
  • most ocean is here
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25
Q

what at abyssalpelagic

A

-2000/4000m - 6000m

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26
Q

what is hadalpelagic

A
  • under 6000m
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27
Q

what is aphotic

A

-region of water where photosynthesis cannot take place
- everything under 200m

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28
Q

what is plankton

A
  • live in water column, generally at whim of current
  • some can swim
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29
Q

what is nekton

A
  • animals that can swim against current
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30
Q

what is neuston

A
  • animals on surface of water
  • walk on or under water
  • use surface tension
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31
Q

what is pleuston

A
  • above and below surface
  • ex. man of war, floating on water but tentacles are below the surface
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32
Q

what is epifaunal/benthic

A
  • sits on sand
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33
Q

what is semi-infaunal

A
  • partly in sand
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34
Q

what is infaunal

A
  • completely in sand
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35
Q

what is demersal

A
  • not on the bottom but very close
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36
Q

how are marine organisms distributed

A
  • Organisms are distributed across the ocean zones based on their adaptive features
  • Most of the ocean is in the aphotic zone where light is a limiting factor
  • Organisms are adapted to survive in specific areas of the ocean
  • The suite of species we see today are the result of evolution
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37
Q

formation of the oceans

A
  • Atmosphere, oceans and continents are result of crustal differentiation under gravity
  • Continents “float” on the ocean crust
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38
Q

Ocean and marginal seas

A
  • The world’s oceans: oceans and marginal seas
  • Oceans cover 71% of earth’s surface
  • Southern hemisphere 80%, Northern hemisphere 61%
  • 84% deeper than 2000m
  • Greatest depth ~ 11,000 m in Marianas Trench
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39
Q

Marginal seas

A
  • Examples: Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea
  • Affected strongly by:
    – regional climate
    – precipitation-evaporation balance
    – river input of fresh water and dissolved solids
    – limited exchange with the open ocean
    – Geological history
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40
Q

size of ocean (big to small)

A
  1. pacific
  2. atlantic
  3. indian
  4. arctic
  5. Caribbean
  6. Mediterranean
  7. other
41
Q

what is the abyssal plain

A
  • flat region about 4km down
  • most ocean is this
42
Q

what is a mid-ocean ridge

A
  • plates pull apart to form island
  • iceland
43
Q

what is a seamount

A
  • volcanoes that never reached the surface
  • lots of diversity over top in the photic zone
44
Q

Magnetic anomalies at ridge

A
  • magnetic minerals align to the earth’s magnetic field
  • periodically the magnetic field changes
  • symmetrical on either side of ridge
45
Q

continental drift

A
  • continents move with the spreading ocean crust
  • affects distribution of organisms
46
Q

characteristics of water

A
  1. high heat of vaporization
    - Hydrogen bonds must be broken in order for water to go from a liquid to a gas
    - Hence, water evaporates slowly and has a high boiling temp
  2. high value of latent heat of fusion
    - Amount of heat gained per unit mass when changing from solid to a liquid
    - Melting ice takes up a lot of heat
  3. high heat capacity
    - can store large amounts of heat
  4. an unusual density- temperature relationship
    - as temperature decreases, density increases
    - as salinity increases, density increases
  5. is an almost universal solvent
    - except when it turns to ice
47
Q

temperature of ocean

A
  • Oceanic temperature range is less than terrestrial range
  • Deep ocean is cold
  • Latitudinal gradients in temperature
  • Vertical Gradients (Tropics)
  • Oceanic range (-1.9 to 40 °C) less than terrestrial range (- 68.5 to 58 °C)
  • Deep ocean is cold (2 to 4 °C)
48
Q

heat changes in the ocean

A

Additions:
- latitudinal gradient of solar heating
- geothermal heating
- internal friction
- water vapour condensation
Losses:
- back radiation of surface
- convection of heat to atmosphere
- evaporation

49
Q

definition of salinity

A

dissolved inorganic salts in seawater

50
Q

salinity in the ocean

A
  • g of dissolved salts per 1000g of seawater
    – units are o/oo or ppt or psu (practical salinity unit)
    – conductivity can also proved an estimate of salinity
  • Controlled by:
    – + evaporation, sea-ice formation
    – - precipitation, river runoff
  • Salinity in open ocean is 33 to 37 o/oo, marginal seas tend to be higher (or lower)
  • Scientists can measure Chlorine and estimate the salinity (1.81 x the Chlorinity Cl/l)
51
Q

trace elements

A
  • The remaining 0.01% (<1ppm) of dissolved substances includes crucial salts and elements that are essential for marine life
    – Iron
    – Silicon Dioxide
    – Nitrate
    – Phosphate
  • Nitrate and phosphate do not occur in constant proportions with the others and may be limiting
  • The salt content of seawater also impacts density and freezing point, hence seawater at a psu of 35 freezes at -1.9, when it freezes, salts are excluded and thus ice floats
52
Q

oxygen in the ocean

A
  • dissolved oxygen content in the surface waters of the ocean are due to:
  • Mixing with atmosphere (decreases with increased temperatures and
    increasing salinity)
    – photosynthesis
  • Oxygen in deep waters is due to thermo-haline circulation
  • Marginal seas may be affected by reduced circulation
53
Q

light in the ocean

A
  • light is absorbed by seawater and particulate matter or scattered
  • Intensity declines with depth
54
Q

how does water move

A
  • Two factors:
  • planetary wind system
  • rotation of the earth
  • Planetary wind system is due to warm air at the equator that rises and moves to higher latitudes and sinks
  • As the earth moves the air is deflected as it rises and sinks, this is also seen in the oceans and is known as the Coriolis effect
55
Q

explain the coriolis effect

A
  1. An object attached to the surface moves faster at the equator as the earth spins (24h) because it has a farther distance to travel in the same time period.
  2. The oceans are not attached to the surface and flow, therefore the water will be moved due to the rotation of the planet
  3. In the northern hemisphere, water that is moving from the equator (higher speed/momentum) northward (lower speed/momentum) will be deflected towards the right (clockwise)
  4. In the southern hemisphere, water that is moving from the equator (higher speed/momentum) southward (lower speed momentum) will be deflected towards the left (counterclockwise)
56
Q

oceanic circulation

A
  1. Wind-driven surface circulation
    – Prevailing westerlies (40°N & S latitude)
    – Trade winds (toward the west)
  2. Density-driven thermohaline circulation
57
Q

wind driven circulation

A
  • Combination of wind systems and shapes of ocean basins create cyclonic flow known as gyres
  • Wind plus Coriolis effect tends to concentrate boundary currents on west sides of ocean - creates concentrated currents such as Gulf Stream with deflection at higher latitudes
58
Q

upwelling

A

costal winds + coriolis effect

59
Q

Thermohaline circulation

A
  • Water in the ocean can be divided into water masses, identified by distinct temperature, salinity, and other physico- chemical characteristics
  • Thermohaline circulation is movement of ocean water controlled mainly by density characteristics
  • Controlled by (1) location of formation of water, (2) density, (3) Coriolis effect (to a degree)
  • High latitude surface waters - high salinity, low temp which means they have high density
  • High density waters sink, move at depth toward lower latitudes
  • Water masses each have a characteristic depth due to their density (due to salinity and temperature)
60
Q

seawater density (mass/volume)

A
  • Influenced by salt, no maximum density at 4 °C (unlike freshwater)
  • Density measure of seawater at
    temperature t
    – ρ t= (density - 1) x 1000
    – ρ t increases with increasing salinity
    – ρ t increases with decreasing temperature (until freezing)
61
Q

Atmospheric circulation

A
  • The movement of water in the oceans is dependent on the movement of air in the atmosphere (except for the tides)
  • Solar energy is more direct (covers more area) at the equator where air (and water) are heated more rapidly than at higher latitudes
  • This differential warming drives wind patterns that are sustained and create waves and surface currents
62
Q

surface currents

A
  • Caused by winds transferring momentum to the water
  • Stable wind patterns lead to large, slow moving currents that transfer huge volumes of water
  • Water movement is deflected from wind direction due to the Coriolis effect
  • Water movement direction changes with depth, referred to as the Ekman spiral
  • No impact is felt below 200 m
63
Q

names of surface currents

A

Polar easterlies – E to W
Westerlies – from W and SW
Trade Winds – NE to SW
- Water does not flow parallel to the wind direction and is deflected
- As deeper water layers are set in motion by the water above they are further deflected

64
Q

Ekman spiral

A
  • Also referred to as Ekman transport
  • Deeper water layers are set into motion by the waters above them and undergo further coriolis deflection to produce a spiral of current directions
  • Ranges from 15 degrees in shallow water to 45 in deep water
  • caused by cohesiveness of water (upper layers drag on the lower layers)
65
Q

circulation recap

A
  • Coriolis effect - rotation of Earth, relative to latitude, right deflection in N. Hemisphere, left deflection in S. Hemisphere - upwelling, deflection of currents
  • Surface circulation - driven by planetary winds, which are controlled by heating, convection, Coriolis effect - gyres, eastern boundary currents & Ekman transport
  • Thermohaline Circulation - driven by density, sinking, surface water brought to deep sea - water masses determined by density
66
Q

waves

A

Dimensions:
- Wave Length L
- Amplitude H
- Velocity V=L/T

  • Whole water column is NOT moving horizontally
  • When depth < L/2: waves “feel bottom”
  • When H/L > 1/7: wave is unstable and collapses (breaks)
67
Q

beaches

A
  • Longshore currents, riptides are common features, causing erosion and transport of sand
  • Many beaches exposed to direct wave and erosive action
  • Some sandy beaches are more protected, very broad with low slope and dissipate wave energy near the low tide mark
  • Profile more gentle in summer; fall and winter storms cause erosion and a steeper profile
68
Q

tides

A
  • Spring Tides: greatest vertical tidal range, highest high, lowest low
  • Neap tides - smallest vertical tidal range
  • Tides differ in different areas; function of basin shape, basin size, latitude
  • Amplitude varies, evenness of semidiurnal tide varies
  • 2 spring and 2 neap tides per lunar month
69
Q

tidal motion

A
  • Vertical movement of the water forms tidal currents
  • Most obvious on coastlines (important for biological organisms)
    Tides can be:
  • Diurnal - one high and one low (Gulf of Mexico)
  • Semidiurnal - two equal high and two low (most of the east coast of North America)
  • Mixed – semidiurnal and diurnal tides combine to give two high and two low of different ranges (heights)
70
Q

biological significance of tidal patterns

A
  • Organisms in the intertidal zone are adapted to the consistent patterns that occur due to the tides
  • Many organisms tie their reproduction, feeding, predation etc. to the timing of these tides
  • Many organisms have interesting adaptations to allow them to inhabit this environment
71
Q

Estuaries

A
  • Body of water where freshwater source from land mixes with seawater
  • Often results in strong salinity gradient from river to ocean
  • Salinity may be higher at bottom and lower at top, owing to source of river water that comes to lay on top of sea water below or mixes with the sea water to some degree
72
Q

types of estuaries

A
  1. highly stratified
  2. Moderately stratified
  3. vertically homogeneous
73
Q

circulation and connections to biology

A
  • Coriolis effect - upwelling
  • Surface circulation – gyres – movement of planktonic organisms
  • Thermohaline Circulation– oxygen to deep sea
  • Wave action along shorelines communities differ among beaches and rocky shores
  • Tides (coastal and estuarine impacts) - big impact on intertidal communities
74
Q

big picture of climate change

A

Climate change is resulting in loss of sea and land ice, sea level rise, ocean acidification and heat stress on marine organisms. All of this greatly impacts the Ocean

75
Q

what is climate

A

Features of the atmosphere and earth surface and ocean surface that relate to temperature, wind fields, and water movements that are characteristic of a large region on the scale of years to centuries

76
Q

what is oscillation

A
  • Climate can exhibit predictable fluctuations of air pressure, wind fields, moisture, temperature on the scale of decades
  • often changes are seen between alternative states
77
Q

what are trends

A
  • Climate properties can change in the same direction, often over centuries or millennia
78
Q

osciallations vs trends

A
  • Climate change consists often of longer-term trends superposed on climate oscillations
  • To see oscillations you can detrend the data to remove the longer- term trends to see the oscillations
79
Q

names of oscillations

A
  1. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
  2. Pacific Decadal Oscillation
  3. North Atlantic Oscillation
  4. Arctic Oscillation
  5. Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation
  6. Antarctic Oscillation
  7. Intertropical Convergence Zone
  8. Indian Ocean Diapole
80
Q

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

A

Period: 2-7 Years
Location: Pacific with effects worldwide

81
Q

Pacific Decadal Oscillation

A

Period: 10 years with lots of variation
Location: Middle latitudes of North Pacific Basin, alternating warm and cool waters

82
Q

North Atlantic Oscillation

A

Period: unknown
Location: North Atlantic, shift in pressure between region of Iceland and the Azores

83
Q

Arctic Oscillation

A

Period: unknown
Location: Shift in pressure between Arctic and lower latitudes 37-45°N, affecting distribution of cold Arctic air over varying latitudes

84
Q

Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation

A

Period: Several shifts in the twentieth century
Location: Shifts in pressure in the
Northern Pacific Ocean, affecting shifts in temperature in the North Pacific

85
Q

Antarctic Oscillation

A

Period: unknown
Location: Shifts in pressure at two loci, one in Antarctic Ocean and another at South latitude 40- 50°

86
Q

Intertropical Convergence Zone

A

Period: semiannual
Location: Northern summer development of monsoon over southern Asia with strong cyclones; Southern Hemisphere summer monsoon with weaker development of cyclones

87
Q

Indian Ocean Diapole

A

Period: Irregular
Location: Eastern Indian Ocean becomes alternatively warmer, then cooler, than the western Indian Ocean

88
Q

More about El Nino

A
  • Coupling of planetary wind system with ocean – Ekman transport, Coriolis & planetary winds
  • Change in pressure conditions in the Pacific changes wind systems
  • “Normal state” – La Niña, southerly winds along South American west coast generate upwelling of cold deeper water – brings nutrients to surface
  • When trade winds weaken under El Niño – shutdown of Normal or upwelling stops
  • winds shut down, warm water moves east across Pacific Ocean, thermocline deepens, upwelling stops, warm water, and low productivity occurs in eastern Pacific
  • The Southern Oscillation Index is strongly correlated to sea temperature in the Pacific
89
Q

Pacific Decadal Oscillation

A
  • Middle latitudes of North Pacific Ocean
  • Alternating periods of cool and warm water
  • Scale of 20-30 years
  • Causes alternative warm and cool periods in eastern Pacific
  • Warm periods allow great increases in salmon in Alaska
  • Cool period: Northern predators such as dungeness crab and English sole move southward and enter San Francisco Bay – eat suspension feeding benthos and phytoplankton increases in bay
  • Warm water phase: lots of bivalves, little plankton, no crustaceans
  • cool water phase: less bivalves, lots of plankton, more crustaceans
90
Q

COP28

A
  • Conference of the Parties – United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCC)
  • Objective is to stabilize of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level to avoid anthropogenic interference in earth’s climate system
  • Kyoto Protocol superceded by the Paris Accord
  • Ultimately, keep temperatures below 1.5C
91
Q

Predicted effects of climate change on the ocean

A
  • Sea surface temperature warming
  • Sea level rise (expansion of seawater volume with increasing temperature)
  • Sea level rise (melting of continental
    glaciers)
  • Seawater acidification (due to increased dissolved carbon dioxide)
  • Intensification of storms (controversial)
92
Q

Thermohaline circulation and climate change

A
  • The global conveyor belt is a strong, but easily disrupted process which can be affected by climate change
  • If global warming results in increased rainfall in the North Atlantic, and the melting of glaciers and sea ice, the influx of warm freshwater onto the sea surface could block the formation of sea ice, disrupting the sinking of cold, salty water
  • This sequence of events could slow or even stop the conveyor belt, which could result in potentially drastic temperature changes in Europe
93
Q

Global Environmental Change at the Biodiversity Level

A
  • Changes of pH and sea-surface temperature may cause the loss of foundation species for major communities
  • Changes of sea-surface temperature may cause increases of the success of invasions of alien species and rearrangements of local species abundance
  • Over harvesting of species or habitat destruction may result in complex negative interactions with global climate change impacts
  • Sea-level rise and climate change may strongly affect coral reef survival; reef drowning possible, reefs cannot “escape” to higher latitudes in Pacific oceanic island systems
  • Increased temperature and carbon dioxide may increase biological productivity, especially in nutrient enriched estuaries
  • Increase of greenhouse gases and global warming could intensify coastal upwelling and increase primary production
  • Changes in primary production may occur in the open ocean over a few decades, but there is no evidence at present that primary production has increased to any degree over the last 70 years or so
  • While upwelling increase is possible, increase in sea surface temperature could stabilize water columns, resulting in nutrient depletion in tropical open sea water columns
94
Q

Global Environmental Change at the Organismal Level

A
  • Increases of sea-surface temperature affect physiological function, migration patterns, and geographical range
  • Latitudinal shifts of species not entirely coordinated. Nesting birds might lose preferred food in water column nearby
  • Increases of sea-surface temperature may affect the impact of spread of disease
  • Corals and other species are weakened by temperature increase, increase susceptibility
  • Decreases of pH are influencing calcification
  • Some evidence for corals, calcifying plankton such as coccolithophorids might be affected, although carbon dioxide can also stimulate primary production
95
Q

Ocean Acidification

A
  • Additions of CO2 to atmosphere result in increased dissolved CO2 in the surface ocean
  • Leads eventually to lowering of pH and potential effects of acidification on marine organisms especially some that make calcium carbonate skeletons, but other physiological effects as well
    – Sensory detection
    – Ion balances
    – Metabolism
    – Effects on grown and survival
96
Q

pH

A
  • Acid-base balance is important for organisms living in the sea
  • Small changes in pH can negatively affect marine organisms
  • Ocean acidification involves a slight decrease in pH, resulting in more acidic ocean waters
97
Q

Addition of CO2 to the ocean

A
  • Warmer water holds less CO2
  • There are three forms of dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water:
  • CO2 : carbon dioxide
  • HCO3- : bicarbonate
  • CO32- : carbonate
  • Additions make the Ocean a storehouse of carbon
  • The buffering system of the ocean fails when too much CO2 is added
  • pH decreases as hydronium ions are added
  • Two natural phases of CaCO3: calcite and aragonite
  • Aragonite less stable
  • The reduction of carbonate reduces CaCO3 preciptation
  • Can calculate concentrations of Ca and CO3 ions at saturation level for calcium carbonate
  • Need 3x saturation state to precipitate aragonite
  • Aragonite in all corals, most snails, pteropods
98
Q

Known effects of acidification

A
  • Formation of larval bivalve shells - impact on bivalve fisheries, hatcheries
  • Reduction of coral skeletal density
  • Interaction of upwelling, hypoxia, and pH reduction (west coast)
  • Interaction of hypoxia, pH reduction (east coast)
99
Q

Impacts on Organisms

A
  • Fish mortality due to high heat stress
  • Shutdown in upwelling (lower productivity)
  • Loss of cold adapted intertidal organisms in Peru and Chile
  • Coral Reef mortality due to heat
  • Strong coastal damage and storms impacting communities
  • Heavy rain in Western North America, drought & high heat in Australia, droughts in sub- Saharan Africa, possible stronger hurricanes in the Pacific

BIOL 450 Marine Biology (2 decks)

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