Midterm 1 Flashcards
1
Q
- Nativists
A
innate (evolutionists)
2
Q
Empiricists
A
experience
3
Q
Human development is
A
multidirectional, multicontextual (setting of events matter), multicultural (culture shapes how behaviour is viewed, intersectionality influences development), multidisciplinary (Biopsychosocial perspective), and plastic (capable of change/ can be altered. People can change over time but also be stable over time).
4
Q
Age-related changes are…
A
- Universal- common to everyone
- Group Specific- shared by certain cohort or culture.
- Individual differences- resulting from unique events.
5
Q
Interactionist model
A
encompasses both respecting the complex reciprocal interactions of nature and nurture.
6
Q
Physical domain of development
A
Includes changes in size, shape and characteristics of the body
7
Q
Cognitive Domain of development
A
Includes changes in thinking, memory, problem-solving and other intellectual skills
8
Q
Social Domain of development
A
Includes changes in variables associated with the relationship of an individual to others. Your social expectations and roles change.
9
Q
Scientific method
A
Curiosity, hypothesis, test, analyze data and report the results.
10
Q
Cross-section study
A
observational studies that analyze data from a population at a single point in time.
11
Q
Longitudinal Study
A
employ continuous or repeated measures to follow particular individuals over prolonged periods of time—often years or decades
12
Q
Cross-sequential
A
a study in which two or more groups of individuals of different ages are directly compared over a period of time. It is thus a combination of a cross-sectional design and a longitudinal design.
13
Q
Four goals of developmental psychology:
A
- Describe 2. Explain 3. Predict 4. Influence
14
Q
Descriptive Methods
A
Case studies, Naturalistic observations, and Surveys
15
Q
Experimental Methods
A
– Causal hypothesis and Random group assignment
Experimental group
Control group
– Independent and dependent variables
16
Q
Quasi-Experimental Method
A
When you cannot assign participants
– Groups are naturally occurring
* Cross-cultural research
* Ethnography
– Comparing cultures or contexts
– E.g. – Margaret Mead’s work in Samoa
17
Q
Ethics
A
– Protection from harm
– Informed consent
– Confidentiality
– Knowledge of results
– Deception?
18
Q
Theories
A
- Bringing findings together to identify patterns.
- Produce hypotheses
- Help generate discoveries
- Guide research and practice
19
Q
Developmental Theory
A
Framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development
20
Q
Human DNA consists of units of heredity called
A
Genes
21
Q
DNA is coiled and packaged into chromosomes; How many?
A
23 pairs
22
Q
The genotype
A
specific genetic material and includes genes that are and are not expressed in the individual.
23
Q
phenotype
A
the observed characteristic * It represents what you see in the individual.
24
Q
Dominant-recessive pattern of inheritance:
A
a single dominant gene influences a person’s phenotype, but two recessive genes can produce an associated trait
25
Polygenic inheritance:
a pattern of inheritance in which many genes influence a trait
26
Multi-factorial inheritance:
affected by both genes and the environment
27
Mitochondrial inheritance:
children inherit genes from the egg, but not sperm
28
Epigenetics
how behaviours and the environment influence whether genes are turned on or off.
29
Some experiences can result in alterations in which...
genes are expressed
30
Some of these changes can even be...
passed onto the next generation
31
Parents create the child's environment:
Genes and home environment
32
Children influence environment:
Temperament & heritable behaviours
33
Inherited traits influence interpretation
Temperament & pathologies
34
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
* – Genetically inherited cognitive and social characteristics that promote survival and adaptation appear at different times across the lifespan
* – Newborns are genetically programmed with a predisposition to learn and develop in certain ways
* – Over our lifespan, we need to display different intellectual, personality and social behaviours to help us adapt and survive
35
Psychoanalytic Theories
Irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.
36
Psychoanalytic theorists believe that:
developmental change happens due to internal, often unconscious drives
37
3 personality structures that develop over time:
* Id
* Ego
* Superego
38
Five Psychosexual Stages:
* – Oral (mouth) – 0 to 2 years
* – Anal (anus) – 15mths to 3 years
* – Phallic (genitals)- 3 to 6 years
* – Latency (period of dormancy)- 6 to puberty
* – Genital (genitals) – puberty to adulthood
* Fixed sequence
* Optimum development requires satisfaction of needs at each stage.
39
Psychoanalytic Theories – Erikson
* Development results from the interaction between inner and outer forces
* instincts and cultural demands
* Psychosocial stages focus on family and culture, not pleasure and sex.
* Development occurs across the entire lifespan, not just childhood.
* 8 “crises” or “dilemmas”
40
The Humanistic Alternative
* Deficiency motives - maintain inner balance
* Being motives – desire to understand and give to others
- The most important internal drive is wanting to grow and achieve their full potential (self-actualization)
41
Positive reinforcement
involves adding a “pleasant” consequence: Treats, attention/praise
42
Negative reinforcement
involves the removal of something “unpleasant”: Taking cough medicine removes your cough.
43
Positive punishment
involves adding something “unpleasant”, such as scolding
44
Negative punishment
involves the removal of something “pleasant”, such as taking away TV privileges.
45
Partial reinforcement
behaviour is reinforced sometimes (common in the real world)
– E.g. kids wanting attention
46
Shaping
complex behaviours are reinforced at steps
– Each step includes reinforcement
47
Extinction
is a decrease in behaviour after repeated non- reinforcement (e.g. ignoring it)
48
Cognitive Theorists
Cognitive theories emphasize mental aspects of development, such as logic and memory
49
Cognitive Theorists – Piaget
Piaget focused on answering the central question “How does thinking develop?”
50
Scheme
children's repetitive actions, such as containing or positioning resources
51
Schema
the thought-process behind the action, built-up over many exposures
52
Cognitive equilibrium
state of mental balance obtained through pre-existing ideas
53
Assimilation
applying schemes to experiences
54
Accommodation
Updating schemes to include new information.
55
Second trimester
- 21 weeks for miscarriage
- May need surgical interventions.
- 32 weeks- most clinics want to see you weekly.
56
Cephalocaudal
development that proceeds from the head downward.
57
Proximodistal pattern
development that proceeds from middle of the body outward.
58
1. Mitosis
cell division resulting in two identical cells
59
2. Cell migration
newly formed cells move away from point of origin.
60
3. Cell differentiation
cells stat to specialize in structure and function.
61
4. Apoptosis
genetically programmed cell death. E.g. finger development
62
First 2 weeks
- Cells specialize and cell division happens rapidly.
- Blastocyst= hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells
- Blastocyst us implanted in uterine tissue by 12th day
63
Embryonic Stage
- Starts when implantation is complete- end of 8th week.
- Neurons form the neural tube -3-4 weeks.
64
Gonads- week 6
- Androgens= testes
- No androgens= ovaries
65
Organogenesis
-formation of organs
66
Fetal Stage
- Begins at the end of week 8 – birth.
- Organ systems are refined.
- Especially the lungs and brain
67
Viability
22 weeks for about 20-33%
68
Neural proliferation
10th – 18th weeks
69
Neurons migrate
13th – 21st weeks.
- Mostly somas
- Glial cells develop.
70
Fetal behaviour
- Individual differences in fetal activity are also seen after the baby is born!
- More active fetuses= active child
- Less active fetuses= fearful, shy children
71
Fetus shows preference for:
- Mothers voice
- Native Language
- Melodies
72
Habituation
A decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation
73
Dishabituation
New stimulus rekindles responses.
74
Evidence of Prenatal Learning
* Pregnant women drank carrot juice for 3 weeks near the end of their pregnancy /early lactation
* At 5.5 months, tested infants’ reaction to carrot- flavoured vs. plain cereal
75
Congenital anomaly:
abnormality present at birth
-Rare
- Sometimes preventable
76
Autosomal disorders are caused by genes located on
chromosomes other than sex chromosomes
* dominant - cardiovascular disorders like HBP, Huntington’s
* recessive – phenylketonuria (PKU)
77
Sex-linked disorders are found on the X-chromosome
* more common in males
* e.g. red–green colour blindness
78
Issues in Prenatal Development
* Chromosomal anomalies
* Aneuploidy is the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell
* Trisomy’s
* 21 – Down’s Syndrome
79
Sex chromosomal anomalies
Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY pattern) – Turner’s syndrome (XO pattern)
* Nondisjunction–failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis
80
Teratogens
* Any external agent or substance that can cause harm to an organism during prenatal development
– Recreational Drugs
– Medications
– Environmental agents
81
Effects on development are dependent on when and how much of the teratogen was encountered.
* Sensitive period: time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors.
– Sensitive period different for different systems
* Dose-response relationship
82
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
* a group of conditions caused by alcohol exposure before birth
* Behavioural problems * Cognitive impairments
83
Neonate
term for baby between birth and 1 month of age
84
APGAR
appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration
85
How does the newborn spend their day?
* Healthy babies interact with their environment right away.
* Exploration influenced by baby’s state of arousal.
* Most time spent sleeping.
86
Brain Development – Infant Period
Neurons generated during prenatal development forms complex connections
87
Synaptogenesis
formation of synapses with other neurons, making trillions of connections
* – Begins prenatally, and continues after birth
* – electrochemical messages are cross these gaps (synapses)
88
Synaptic pruning:
process by which synapses that are rarely activated are eliminated
* * Important pathways are preserved * Timeline of pruning varies by region
89
Plasticity
capacity to be molded or changed by experience
– Children's brain more plastic than adult’s
– Can allow for recovery from injury
90
Myelinization
the development of a fatty, insulating tissues (myelin sheath) around a neuron
– Higher-order regions may not be finished until your mid 20s or 30s!
– Faster connections
91
Adaptive reflexes
help newborns survive.
* may go away (rooting)
* may stay for life (withdrawal from pain) Primitive reflexes - disappear ~ 6 months of age.
92
Physical change in infant period: BONE
– Bigger – long bones grow
– Stronger – composition changes from cartilage to bone
– More – masses of cartilage separate and turn to bone
* Ossification & osteogenesis – bone formation
93
MUSCLES
Muscles:
* – All present at birth
small & fatty
* – Similar water content to adult
by 1y/o
* – These changes enable more mobility in the 1y/o
94
LUNGS AND HEART
* – Increased efficiency
* – Hearth muscle changes result in greater stamina
* – Huge changes in energy capabilities by 2y/o
95
Locomotor (gross motor)
* body movement – Non-locomotor
* stability
96
Manipulative (fine motor)
* hand movement
97
Sex differences
* Female wrist bones
* Rough play
* – socialization?
98
Vision
– visual acuity of a newborn is about 40 times worse than normal sighted adult
they can see things ‘in their world.’
– 8 times worse at 6 months old
99
Tracking
The process of following a moving object
– Initially inefficient but improves rapidly
100
Rods
cells responsible for vision in low light – Present at birth (11w gestation)
101
Cones
cells responsible for vision in bright light, including color vision
Present, but sparse
102
Colour vision
– Red, green, and blue present by 1 month old
– Infant’s ability to sense colour is almost identical to an adult’s
103
Auditory Acuity
– Newborns have great hearing.
-Develops in the last trimester of pregnancy.
– Pitches must be high
– Some sound localization at birth
– Single syllables at 1 month
– Doubles at 6 months
104
Smelling and Tasting
– Function at birth
– Smell has nearly unlimited variations – Rapidly adapt to the social world
Related to familial and cultural preferences.
105
Touch and Motion
– Best developed of all senses
– Responsive to gentle social touching
106
Pain
* – Pain & temperature are connected to touch
* – Arguments in the research
* – Some suggest that pain can be sensed in the fetus, others say this sensation must mature
Spinal differences
107
Habituation & Dishabituation
– Response changes according
to whether the stim is new
E.g., Sucking patterns.
* Preference technique – looking behaviours
* Operant Conditioning
– learned response is tested by varying the stimulus
108
Intermodal Perception
– Formation of a single perception of a stimulus that is based on information from two or more senses
– Possible as early as 1 month and common by 6 months
109
Cross-Modal Transfer
The transfer of information from one sense to another
110
Innate (nativist) aspects
Newborns have very impressive sensory capabilities
111
Experiential (empiricist) aspects
Some minimum exposure to sensory stimuli is required for normal development
112
Integrating Nativism and Empiricism
Both nature and nurture are involved
113
Object Permanence
Babies as young as 4 months show clear signs of
object permanence
*knowing object is there even when not in field of vision
114
Object Concept
an infant’s understanding of the nature of objects and how they behave
115
Via classical conditioning
Breast preference
116
Via operant conditioning
Rewards such as taste and mother’s voice
117
Observational Learning
10 and 12 month olds
118
Schematic Learning
repeated patterns that build into ‘known’ combinations
* Repetition of schemes build up into schemas
119
when do infants begin to categorize information
7 months
120
Infant memory
Remember some auditory stimuli they hear while asleep.
* Early infant memory is strongly tied to context
* Mobile & kick counts
*Memory even up to 1 week
121
Infant language development
Exposure, exposure, exposure
* Talking, reading, etc. is critical for language development
* Richer vocabularies
122
Infant-directed speech (motherese)
a simplified, repetitive, high-pitched speech
123
Bilingual pros:
better working memory, greater focus on language tasks, fluent children do not have schooling issues in either language
124
Bilingual cons:
sometimes in consistent exposure, may think slower in their non-native language, educational disadvantages if schooled in less fluent language
125
Individual differences in infant language develop
* Language delays may run in families
* Suggests biological component
* Socialization also a consideration
* Culture dictates aspects of language development
* E.g.,Pragmatic markers in Japanese children seen before inflections in other languages
126
