midterm 1 Flashcards

Question

soma

Answer 1

cell body of the neuron that contains the nucleus **function**: performs metabolic, or life-sustaining, functions of the cell

Answer 2

the longest cable like part of the neuron **function**: carries neural impulses to the terminal buttons (away from the cell body and towards other neurons)

Answer 3

the swellings at the end of the neuron **function**: release chemicals called neurotransmitters that carry messages to adjacent cells (into the synapse)

Answer 4

tiny gap that separates one neuron from another and serves as a connection point between neurons (where neurotransmitters carry neural impulses)

Answer 5

tree-like structures that project from the soma (cell body) **function**: receive neural impulses from neighboring neurons

Answer 6

**sensory neurons (afferent neurons)**: neurons that transmit information from sensory organs, muscles, and inner organs to the spinal cord and brain *think AWAY from outside* **motor neurons (efferent neurons)**: neurons that convey nerve impulses from the central nervous systems to muscles and glands *TOWARDS outside* **interneurons (associate neurons)**: most common type, within the central nervous system, process information *connect neurons to neurons*

Answer 7

body organs or structures that produce hormones

Answer 8

bundle of axons from different neurons that transmit nerve impulses

Answer 9

small but numerous cells in the nervous suite, that support neurons and that form the myelin sheath found on many axons *g for glue that holds neurons together*

Answer 10

- formed by the glial cells layer of protective insulation that covers the axons of certain neurons and helps speed transmission of nerve impulses *kinda like a shield*

Answer 11

the gaps in the myelin sheath that create non insulated areas along the axon

Answer 12

chronic, often crippling disease of the central nervous system where the **myelin sheath is destroyed** - slowed transmission of neural impulses, leading to range of symptoms: - person loses ability to speak, walk, write, or even breathe

Answer 13

electrical potential across the cell membrane of a neuron in its **resting state** - gates that control the passage of sodium ions are closed = greater concentration of Na+ atoms stays outside the cell - causes cell to have a slightly negative charge, relative to the surrounding fluid - holds potential energy that is ready to "fire" a neural impulse

Answer 14

positive shift in the electrical charge in the neuron's resting potential, making it less negatively charged - neurotransmitters released = cell is stimulated = gate open = Na+ from surrounding fluid rush in = area inside cell membrane becomes less negatively charged

Answer 15

sudden reversal of charge from negative to positive of a nerve cell, called **neural impulse** - typically beings at juncture between soma and axon called the *axon hillock* and then shoots down entire length of the axon - this is called the "firing" of the neuron, or a *spike*

Answer 16

either neuron fires completely (action potential) or it does not have enough stimulation to fire, no halfway point

Answer 17

temporary state in which a neuron is unable to fire after an action potential - cell is restoring the electrochemical balance by pumping out sodium ions and drawing in potassium ions

Answer 18

**absolute**: no matter how strong of a stimulus, neuron cannot fire again **relative**: more difficult than usual but possible to fire with a strong enough stimulus

Answer 19

Na+ (usually outside) come in and makes it more positive, K+ (usually inside) makes it more negative

Answer 20

a site on the receiving neuron in which neurotransmitters dock - each neurotransmitter can only fit into one kind of receptor site

Answer 21

**excitatory message**: chemical message that makes it more likely that a neuron will fire, makes an action potential more likely **inhibitory message**: does the opposite- makes action potential less likely **summation process**: neuron counts up the excitatory and inhibitory messages to determine which type of message has the highest number, and whichever message type has more, win

Answer 22

process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the transmitting neuron *recycling* *enzymes can also break down neurotransmitters to be released from the body as urine*

Answer 23

chemicals that either increase or decrease the sensitivity of the receiving neuron to neurotransmitters - what medicine does to reduce pain

Answer 24

**antagonists**: drugs that block the actions of neurotransmitters by occupying the receptor sites in which the neurotransmitters dock **agonists**: drugs that enhance the activity of neurotransmitters by either increasing availability or effectiveness of neurotransmitters, or mimicking their actions - used in medicines too

Answer 25

degenerative brain disease that leads to progressive loss of motor functioning or physical movements *result of the destruction of dopamine-producing cells*

Answer 26

agonists that increase availability of dopamine in the brain by blocking its reuptake - class of synthetically derived stimulant drugs, such as meth

Answer 27

natural chemicals released in the brain that have pain-killing and pleasure-inducing effects **inhibitory** because they block signals from occurring

Answer 28

drugs that combat depression by affecting the levels or activity of neurotransmitters - serve as agonists that increase availability of neurotransmitters *norepinephrine and serotonin*

Answer 29

- transmits signals between neurons and muscles - facilitates **muscle contraction** - also regulates autonomic functions such as heart rate, digestion, and glandular secretion - cognitive functions such as attention, learning, and memory - regulates sleep-wake cycles and arousal states **excitatory**

Answer 30

- primary **inhibitory** in the central nervous system - acts to **reduce the activity of neurons**, helping to regulate and calm neuronal activity *essential for maintaining the balance between excitatory and inhibitory signals in the brain* - also involved in promoting relaxation, reducing anxiety, and regulating sleep

Answer 31

- commonly associated with feelings of **pleasure and reward** - regulates movement, motivation, and emotional responses **both inhibitory and excitatory**

Answer 32

**central nervous system (CNS)**: brain & the spinal cord (*master control unit*) **peripheral nervous system (PNS)**: nerves that connect the central nervous system to sensory organs, muscles, and glands (*link to the outside world*)

Answer 33

**autonomic nervous system*: *automatically* controls internal bodily processes like heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and dilation of the pupils- regulates these processes without you thinking about them and *somatic nervous system*: part of the nervous system that connects the spinal cord & brain with the sensory organs, muscles, and glands, allows you to perceive the world, *voluntary movement* autonomic nervous system divided into: - **sympathetic nervous system**: speeds up body processes, alarm system that heightens arousal, accelerates heart rate, breathing rate, and more fuel by releasing sugar - **parasympathetic nervous system**: regulates bodily processes, such as digestion (turns it on), that replenishes stores of energy, slows down processes, for when you are relaxed

Answer 34

**knee-jerk reflex**: tapping the knee sends a signal through sensory neuron to spinal cord, where motor neuron carries signals to muscles in the thigh to contract, causing leg to kick forward **withdrawal reflex**: touching a hot stove sends signal through sensory neuron to spinal cord

Answer 35

process by which new neurons are formed

Answer 36

**hindbrain**: lowest part of the brain, oldest evolutionarily, includes: **medulla**: regulates basic life functions, such as heartbeat and respiration **pons**: regulates states of wakefulness and sleep, bridge b/w regions (basic functions) **cerebellum**: controls coordination and balance

Answer 37

"stalk" in the lower part of the brain that connects the spinal cord to higher regions of the brain

Answer 38

**midbrain**: lies above the hindbrain, control of automatic movements of the eye muscles **reticular formation (RAS)**: alertness, attention, and arousal

Answer 39

**forebrain**: largest and uppermost part of the brain (higher mental processes) **thalamus**: relay station for sensory info (all but *smell*) **basal ganglia**: important in controlling movement and coordination - also includes limbic system

Answer 40

- part of the forebrain **amygdala**: emotions, aggression, rage, and fear (Amy, da! You're so emotional!) **hippocampus**: memory (if you saw a hippo on campus, you would remember it) **hypothalamus**: reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors -link to endocrine system

Answer 41

**cerebral cortex**: outer portion of the brain-- higher order thought processes **Frontal**: contains major motor, speech and reasoning centers (judgement, logic, impulse control) **Occipital**: contains the visual sensory area **Parietal**: Mainly related to sensation and perception (mathematical and spatial reasoning) - touch **Temporal**: processes sensory info related to hearing, responsible for understanding of language and speech

Answer 42

**cerebral cortex**: wrinkled, outer layer of gray matter that covers the cerebral hemispheres; controls higher mental functions, such as thought and language **cerebral hemispheres**: right and left masses of the cerebrum, joined by corpus callous **corpus callosum**: thick bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres

Answer 43

highly developed in humans than other animals - responsible for higher mental functions, such as piercing together sensory input to form meaningful perceptions of the world, thinking, learning, producing and understanding speech

Answer 44

**apraxia**: motor disorder that affects ability to carry out planned movements or tasks, despite the individual having the physical ability to do so **aphasia**: language disorder that affects ability to communicate through speech, writing, or understanding language. It's like having difficulty finding the right words, forming sentences, or understanding what others are saying.

Answer 45

**Broca's aphasia**: non-fluent aphasia, this type involves difficulty in producing speech, despite difficulty speaking, comprehension of language is still intact *nonfluent aphasia* **Wernicke's aphasia**: difficulty understanding language and producing meaningful speech, may speak fluently but speech lacks coherence and is nonsensical *fluent aphasia*

Answer 46

**endocrine system**: chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the nervous system through the bloodstream, secretes hormones, closely tied to **hypothalamus** **pituitary gland**: regulated by, the hypothalamus. It is called the "master gland" because it controls the functioning of the rest of the endocrine system

Answer 47

neural transmission: within a single neuron synaptic transmission: between neurons

Answer 48

area of the left temporal lobe involved in processing written and spoken language

Answer 49

neurological disorder characterized by seizures that involve sudden, violent discharge of electrical activity in the brain **split brain patients**: surgically severing the corpus callosum

Answer 50

are in the left front lobe involved in speech

Answer 51

specialization of right and left cerebral hemispheres for specific functions left: logical, problem solving, mathematical operations right: nonverbal processing, spatial relationships, recognizing faces, perceiving and expressing emotion, music and art

Answer 52

involved in higher mental functions, including thinking, planning, impulse control, and weighing the consequences of behavior - Phineas Gage has a metal rod go through his skull and it destroyed parts of his pre frontal cortex = he became extremely vulgar and rude

Answer 53

small endocrine gland in the brain that produces hormone **melatonin**, for sleep-wake cycles

Answer 54

pair of endocrine glands just above kidneys that produce **stress-related hormones**

Answer 55

**gonads**: sex glands (testes in men and ovaries in women) that produce sex hormones and germ cells **germ cells**: sperm and egg cells from which new life develops

Answer 56

endocrine gland in the neck that secretes the hormone **thyroxin**, which is involved in regulating metabolic functions and physical growth

Answer 57

*learning by association* - salivating dogs - a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response

Answer 58

**unconditional stimulus**: stimulus that brings about a response without having been learned **unconditioned response**: response that is natural and needs no training **conditioned stimulus**: a once-neutral stimulus that's been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus **conditioned response**: response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (acquired or learned response to a conditioned stimulus) **neutral stimulus**: a stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response

Answer 59

**extinction**: gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response **spontaneous recovery**: spontaneous return of a conditioned response following extinction **reconditioning**: process of relearning a conditioned response following extinction

Answer 60

**stimulus generalization**: tendency of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response (dogs reacting to a similar sound to the bell) **stimulus discrimination**: tendency to differentiate among stimuli so that stimuli that are related to the original conditioned stimulus, but not identical to it, fail to elicit a conditioned response

Answer 61

- method still used to treat phobias - fears are minimized through gradual exposure to the source of the fear - ex. slow exposure to spiders in order to get rid of the fear of spiders

Answer 62

when someone develops a strong dislike for a particle food or drink after associating it with feeling sick or unwell

Answer 63

- Little Albert was a baby boy who was 9 months old - he was exposed to various different animals with fur and he showed no fear - then researchers paired the white rat with a loud scary noise and after a while, he started to be scared of the white rabbit but also other furry animals (even without the loud noise present) **results**: experiment demonstrated that fears and phobias could be learned through classical conditioning and associations with stimuli

Answer 64

responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, whereas those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur

Answer 65

**operant conditioning**: type of learning where behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the consequences they produce - uses positive and negative reinforcers **Skinner box**: controlled environment used to study operant conditioning in animals (usually a small chamber with a lever or button that an animal can press to receive food or water as a reward)

Answer 66

**reinforcer**: any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated **positive**: strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs (giving something as a gift) **negative**: strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs (taking something away as a punishment)

Answer 67

operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of voluntary behaviors, while classical conditioning involves learning through the association between stimuli

Answer 68

in skinner's view, behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement

Answer 69

**positive punishment**: involves adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior - ex. adding chores as punishment for talking back **negative punishment**: involves taking away something pleasant to achieve the same goal - ex. taking away phone for not listening

Answer 70

process of learning that involves the reinforcement of increasingly closer approximations of the desired response (using small steps)

Answer 71

(all by Skinner) **schedules of reinforcement**: predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement **continuous reinforcement**: behavior is reinforced every time it occurs **partial reinforcement**: behavior is reinforced some of the time but not all of the time

Answer 72

**fixed ratio (FR) schedule**: provides reinforcement after a set number of responses - ex. a garment worker gets paid after he or she has sewn five shirts. That would be an FR-5 schedule. **variable ratio (VR) schedule**: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses are made - ex. playing a slot machine, VR-20 means reinforcement after 20 responses **fixed interval (FI) schedule**: reinforcement is given only if a fixed time period has elapsed, regardless of how many responses - ex. getting paid after working one week, FI-30 means reinforcement after 30 seconds **variable interval (VI) schedule**: the time between reinforcements varies around some average regardless of number of responses - ex. might receive reward after 5 mins, then 15 mins, then 8 mins, VI-60 means averages around 60 seconds

Answer 73

unlike reinforcement, weakens a behavior

Answer 74

learning through observing the behavior of another person - much of human learning occurs this way **4 steps**: 1. Paying attention to and perceiving the features of another person's behavior 2. Remembering the behavior 3. Being able to reproduce the action or behavior 4. Being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior *Albert Bandura's experiment with the bobo dolls = children beat the bobo doll after watching others do it*

Answer 75

- when an animal or person learns to believe that they have no control over their environment. "no matter how hard I try, I'll never succeed." - Martin's dogs were split into 2 groups and both were shocked but one group had the power to stop it through a lever - the other group who felt they had no control gave up and did not even try even when it seemed kind of possible

Answer 76

learning that remains "hidden" until there is a reward for performing the learned behavior - ex. a person learns the words of a song playing on the radio but doesn't sing them until friends at a party begin singing

Answer 77

1. **encoding**: the way that information is initially recorded in a form useable to memory 2. **storage**: where the material is saved 3. **retrieval**: has to do with information in storage being located, brought into awareness and used

Answer 78

- explains how information is processed and stored in our brains **sensory memory**: holds information from our senses (like what we see, hear, taste, touch, or smell) for a short period of time, typically a few seconds - *first stage of memory processing* - for ex. glance at a sign while driving, image of the sign is briefly held in your sensory memory before either being forgotten or transferred to your short term memory if its important **short-term memory (STM)**: holds information that we're actively thinking about or consciously processing, also called working memory - *second stage* - holds around 5-9 items for 20-30 seconds unless actively working to keep it there - for ex. when trying to remember a phone number long enough to dial it **long-term memory (LTM)**: where information that's been rehearsed or processed in short term memory is stored semi-permanently - library of the brain - for ex. remembering your childhood home address or your favorite childhood toy

Answer 79

**episodic**: remembering specific events or episodes from your life - mental diary or scrapbook of personal experiences - ex. first day of school, family vacation, or a birthday party **semantic**: remembering general knowledge and factual information about the world - mental encyclopedia of general knowledge and facts - memory of concepts, ideas, and factual information about the world, such as language, geography, history, and specific principles - ex. Paris is the capital of France

Answer 80

**zygote**: begins with conception and ends with zygote (fertilized egg) implanting itself into the uterine wall - takes about 2 weeks - zygotę receives 23 chromosomes from the egg and 23 from the sperm to complete 46 chromosomes - *major task = cell division* - cells of zygote divide into a hollow sphere called a *blastocyst* which has enzymes that can break down the cells of the uterine wall so that it can implant itself **embryo**: major organs of the fetus form, lasts for 6 weeks - 3rd to 8th week of development **fetus**: major task is growth of the fetus, lasts for the rest of the pregnancy - usual pregnancy lasts 40 weeks

Answer 81

**maternal malnutrition**: women who are malnourished have smaller and less healthy babies **smoking**: gases from cigarette smoke pass through the placenta and prevent the fetus from absorbing oxygen - thus, these babies are smaller, slower to grow, or sometimes the mothers have miscarriages **alcohol**: also passes through the placenta. - women who consume a lot of alcohol run the risk of having children with *Fetal Alcohol Syndrome* which can cause the child to have mental retardation, brain damage, behavioral problems, and facial abnormalities. **drugs**: mother who abuses drugs can have miscarriages, a baby with low birth weight, a child born with a physical abnormality, or even a baby addicted to the drug she was using **maternal disease**: If a mother gets rubella in the first two months of pregnancy, the child can be blind and/or deaf. If she gets the chicken pox during the first trimester the child can have defects of the muscle and bones.

Answer 82

**PKU - phenylketonuria**: body cannot break down certain poisons that will then accumulate in the brain - however, test can be done at birth to see if a child has it (if child has it they have to follow a certain diet and they will be okay. for ex. cannot eat anything with Nutra sweet in it such as diet soda) **Tay-Sach's**: children cannot break down fat, fat builds up and destroys brain & nerve cells - affected kids usually die in early childhood, no cure - affects Jewish people of Eastern European decent. **Sickle Cell Anemia**: red blood cell abnormality, can be treated usually by blood transfusions (cells are deflated looking) - this disease seems to afflict African Americans **Down Syndrome**: chromosomal disorder that occurs at the time of conception. - Instead of usual 46 chromosomes, there are 47, so one extra chromosome causes this

Answer 83

another term for newborn - first 4 weeks of life neonate can't do much but sleep and eat

Answer 84

**sucking reflex** **rooting reflex**: infant will turn its head when strokes on the corner of its mouth **palmar reflex**: infant will grasp something in its palm

Answer 85

**vision**: newborns can perceive light and see, but focus is very poor until about 2 months. what they are looking at cannot be more than 8 inches away from their face **hearing**: newborns are more sensitive to high frequency sounds which may explain their preference for female voices - they can recognize mom's voice by one week **chemical senses**: sense of taste and smell are pretty well developed at birth. they respond to sweet, sour, bitter, and salty stimuli, and prefer sweet. - can also identify mother by smell within days after birth

Answer 86

**Level 1: Preconventional Morality**: This means that a person will only behave in a positive way to gain rewards and avoid punishment. For example, if they think they will not get caught, they will steal. **Level 2: Conventional Morality**: Here the person understands that they are part of a society and should obey rules so everyone can live peacefully. They also follow rules in order to gain approval. **Level 3 : Post Conventional Morality**: Many people do not get to this stage. It means that they follow universal, ethical principles that not only benefit themselves, the society that they live in, but also future generations to come. They would be concerned with such issues as human rights, civil rights, environmental protection, etc.

Answer 87

**1. sensorimotor stage**: birth until 2 years old, babies learn about the world through their senses and actions - *sensorimotor intelligence*: babies learn through the world through their senses - *object permanence*: understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight **2. pre operational stage**: 2-7 years old, children start to use language and symbols to represent objects and events - *egocentrisim*: child has difficulty seeing things from another person's perspective - *centration*: tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation and ignore other important factors - *animistic thinking*: child believes that inanimate objects have feelings or intentions **3. concrete operational stage**: 7-11 years old, children begin to think logically about concrete events and understand conservation and other concrete concepts - *conservation*: understanding that properties of objects like volume, mass, or number, remain the same even when their appearance changes - *mental operations*: cognitive processes that involve manipulating information mentally (adding or subtracting without using numbers) - *concrete thinking*: refers to thinking about things that are real and tangible, focusing on actual experiences and objects **4. formal operational stage**: 12+ years, individuals develop the ability to think abstractly and logically about hypothetical situations - *abstract thinking*: thinking about ideas, concepts, or hypothetical situations that do not have a physical or tangible presence

Answer 88

**authoritarian**: very rigid parent, does not communicate with child, expects obedience. may use physical punishment. many times child is afraid of parent and never learns to express themselves. - children = withdrawn, depressed, and can be aggressive **authoritative**: provide structure to their children, are willing to communicate and be flexible. firm rules and consequences if child does not follow. - children = responsible, independent, and well liked *healthiest parenting style* **permissive**: very relaxed parents, do not have structures or rules which children need, come and go as they please - children = impulsive, have trouble when they are in school or at someone else's house where there are rules

Answer 89

- has to do with the innate disposition that the child is born with **easy infant**: an infant who sleeps and eats regularly, is cheerful, gets used to new people and places easily. very easy to parent this type of child **difficult infant**: child who has no regular sleep or eating patterns, is very cranky, cannot adjust to changes in the environment, etc. **slow to warm up**: child can have regular patterns, and get used to new environments, it just takes them a little more time than an easy infant

Answer 90

- known for his research with *monkeys*, particularly on **maternal separation and social isolation** - conducted experiments using surrogate mothers made of wire and cloth to study the importance of contact comfort and attachment in infant development - his research challenged the prevailing belief that infants primarily bond with their mothers due to feeding, showing instead that contact comfort and emotional bonding are crucial for healthy development

Answer 91

- known for her research on attachment theory, that humans are born with a need to build a close bond with a caregiver - developed **strange situation** = research procedure to assess attachment style in infants, involves observing how they react to brief separations from and reunions with their caregivers in a controlled lab setting - developed the theory of different attachment styles: secure, ambivalent, avoidant

Answer 92

**secure attachment**: infants feel confident that their caregiver will meet their needs and provide comfort when necessary, explore environment freely when caregiver is present but may become upset when separated but easily soothed when caregiver returns. **ambivalent attachment**: infants are anxious and uncertain about their caregiver's availability and responsiveness. may show distress when caregiver leaves but are not easily comforted upon reunion, alternating between seeking closeness and resisting contact. **avoidant attachment**: infants seem indifferent to their caregiver's presence and may actively avoid or ignore them. may not show distress upon separation and may exhibit minimal reaction upon reunion.

Answer 93

**trust vs. mistrust** (infancy, birth to 18 months): infants develop sense of trust or mistrust based on consistency and predictability of caregiver's responsiveness to their needs - caregiver provides warmth and affection = infants develop trust - caregiver is neglectful, inconsistent = infant develops mistrust **autonomy vs. doubt** (early childhood, 18 months-3 years): young children begin to assert their independence and autonomy by exploring environment and making choices - *good caregiver* (support and encouragement) = self confidence - *bad caregiver* (overly critical or controlling) = doubts about abilities and shame **initiative vs. guilt** (3 to 5 years): child begins to take initiative in exploring and engaging with the world around them - *good caregiver (encouraged to pursue interests)* = child develops sense of initiative and creativity - *bad caregiver (criticism, discouragement, punishment)* = child may develop feelings of guilt and sense of inadequacy **industry (competence) vs. inferiority** ( 6- 11 years): child develops sense of competence and mastery as they engage in school related activities and social interactions - *good caregiver* (positive feedback) = develop sense of industry and accomplishment - *bad caregiver* (consistent failure or criticism) = feelings of inferiority and incompetence

Answer 94

1. **rehearsal**: this means practice, practice, practice. repeating info helps remember it better 2. **organization**: means that you cluster information into meaningful categories or themes. -ex. in grocery store trying to remember what to buy, and ask yourself, what kinds of breakfast foods you need 3. **elaboration**: this has to do with making visual representations of the material. Not many people use this. For example, you are at work and you have to remember to buy milk on your way home. So, you picture your car in the parking lot and you picture a cow sitting on the hood. So, when you leave work and see your car you should picture the cow and remember the milk! 4. **mnemonics**: these are organized strategies to help improve your retention. For example, knowing ROY G BIV stands for the colors of the rainbow

Answer 95

1. **Linguistic code**: verbal codes, such as words, phrases, or sentences - encoding info into words or language based representations that can be mentally rehearsed and recalled - *ex. remembering historical facts, vocabulary words, etc.* 2. **Imaginal code**: mental images or visual representations - encoding info into visual images or mental pictures that can be mentally visualized and recalled - *ex. remembering the layout of a room, appearance of a person's face, etc.* 2. **Motor code**: encoding info into motor actions or physical movements - *ex. riding a bicycle, typing on a keyboard, etc.*

Answer 96

**flashbulb memory**: exceptionally vivid and detailed memories of significant events that are recalled with high confidence and accuracy - ex. graduation or a car accident **von restorff effect**: tendency of distinctive or unique items to be more easily remembered compared to similar items - ex. "apple", "orange", "banana", "zucchini" - more likely to remember zucchini because not a fruit

Answer 97

1. **decay**: passage of time leads to gradual decline in the strength of memories, making them more difficult to retrieve 2. **proactive interference**: previously learned information interferes with the ability to remember new information - ex. previously learned Spanish vocab words might interfere with ability to learn new list of French words 3. **retroactive interference**: newly learned information interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information - ex. French vocab words interfere with the ability to remember Spanish vocab words

Answer 98

**alzheimer's**: progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects memory and cognitive function, causes still not fully understood but linked to protein buildup (her lesson says not enough protein called beta amyloid), which is necessary for nerve cell connections **korsakoff's syndrome**: severe memory impairment, caused by severe thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, often associated with long-term alcohol abuse **amnesia**: significant loss of memory that may be temporary or permanent. can be caused by various factors, including head injury, brain trauma, stroke, substance abuse, etc. - *retrograde amnesia* = person loses memories for events prior to a certain event - *anterograde amnesia* = lose memories for event that occur following an injury (basically means cannot form new memories)

Answer 99

another word for *thinking* **thinking**: mental representation & manipulation of information **mental image**: mental picture or representation of an object or event

Answer 100

*concepts* = mental categories we use to group objects, events, and ideas according to common features 2 types: **logical concepts**: clearly defined rules for determining membership - ex. in text you learn that a 3 sided shape is a triangle **natural concepts**: rules for determining how they are applied are poorly defined or fuzzy, we don't form them from a strict set of rules, rather from experiences with these concepts in the real world - ex. abstract concepts such as freedom

Answer 101

a sudden awareness of a solution to a problem (solving a problem suddenly, while other use trial and error)

Answer 102

**algorithms**: step by step set of rules for solving a problem, like when you learn how to do math - sometimes hard to find one that fits a particular problem, but have the correct answer if found - ex. mathematical formulas **heuristics**: rule of thumb used to solve problems or make judgments or decisions. don't guarantee a solution, but may help arrive at one faster. *kind of like an educated gues* 1. **means-end heuristic**: we evaluate our current situation and compare it with the end result we want to achieve. then we develop a plan to reduce the distance between the two, step by step. 2. **backward-working heuristic**: we start with a possible solution and then work backward to see if the data support the solution 3. **creating subgoals heuristic**: we break a larger problem down into smaller, more manageable ones

Answer 103

1. **a mental set**: the tendency to rely on strategies that worked well in similar situations in the past (but might not work well this time) 2. **functional fixedness**: the inability to see how familiar objects can be used in new ways. You think you need a screwdriver and look all over, when you could’ve used a knife or dime to tighten a screw 3. Allowing irrelevant information to distract one’s attention from the relevant information needed to solve the problem.

Answer 104

**Cognitive Biases**: get in the way of our ability to make rational decisions **Confirmation Bias**: tendency to stick to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values

Answer 105

**representative heuristic**: making judgements on how similar something is to a typical example - ex. going to a restaurant bc one person said its good based on hearing one person talk about it - ex. assuming someone is smart if they're wearing glasses - also the heuristic for first impressions **availability heuristic**: tendency to base decisions on examples we most easily recall or bring to mind. - ex. buying a brand because of something we recall seeing or hearing an ad about recently

Answer 106

**divergent thinking**: ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situation and new uses for familiar objects **convergent thinking**: attempt to find one correct answer to a problem, works well for routine problems but not when a more creative solution is needed *example*: what is a pencil used for? convergent - to write divergent - to write, poke holes, a weapon

Answer 107

1. **analogy**: a comparison between 2 things based on their similar properties 2. **conceptual combination**: combining 2 or more concepts into one can result in new ideas - ex. veggie burgers 3. **conceptual expansion**: come up with new ideas by expanding familiar concepts think ACE