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KIN 101 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Which is more common negative or positive feedback?

A

negative feedback

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2
Q

Negative feedback

A

the response counteracts the stimulus, shutting off the response loop

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3
Q

Positive feedback

A

the response reinforces the stimulus, sending the variable farther from the setpoint

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4
Q

Teleological

A

the branch of physiology where they ask “why?” e.g. “why do red blood cells transport oxygen”

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5
Q

Mechanistic

A

branch of physiology where ask “how” e.g. “How do red blood cells transport oxygen?”

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6
Q

Translational research

A

combines teleological and mechanistic

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7
Q

Structure and function are …

A

closely related

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8
Q

Molecular interactions

A

a molecule’s function depends on it’s structure and shape

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9
Q

Compartmentation

A

division of space into compartments. Allows a cell, tissue or organ to specialize and isolate functions

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10
Q

All processes that take place in an organism require…

A

energy (ATP)

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11
Q

Homeostasis maintains..

A

internal stability (how body maintains a range)

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12
Q

Internal or external agents cause a ___ to homeostasis

A

disruption

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13
Q

Homeostasis leads to an ___ change that the body attempts to ___

A

Homeostasis leads to an internal change that the body attempts to compensate

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14
Q

Homeostasis and equilibrium

A

Homeostasis DOES NOT equal equilibrium

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15
Q

Homeostasis

A

maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment. Its goal is to maintain a relatively stable state of disequilibrium

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16
Q

Failure to maintain homeostasis

A

may result in a disease or pathology

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17
Q

Extracellular fluid is a ..

A

buffer between cells and the outside world

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18
Q

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

A

the watery environment that surrounds cells

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19
Q

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

A

fluid within cells

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20
Q

Law of mass balance

A

if the amount of a substance in the body is to remain constant any gain must be offset by an equal loss

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21
Q

Load

A

amount of a substance in the body

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22
Q

Excretion

A

clears substances from the body (urine, feces, lungs, skin)

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23
Q

Mass flow

A

rate of transport through the body

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24
Q

Clearance

A

the rate of which a substance disappears from the blood

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25
Q

Regulated variables

A

variables that are kept within normal range by control mechanisms. Homeostasis attempts to keep values near setpoint (range) or optimum value

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26
Q

An example of a simple control system

A
  1. Input signal: information about critical variable
  2. Integrating center: control center
  3. Output signal: corrective signal (if necessary)
  4. Response: homeostatic response, keep variable in normal range
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27
Q

Local control

A

restricted to a local tissue or cell

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28
Q

Reflex control

A

uses long-distance signaling

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29
Q

Response loops begin with

A

a stimulus

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30
Q

Feedback loops modulate

A

the response loop

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31
Q

Control systems use

A

“negative feedback”

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32
Q

Most control systems that maintain homeostasis have a ___, or normal value. The response loop that controls the critical value activates when the variable moves outside a predetermined ___ ___.

A

Most control systems that maintain homeostasis have a setpoint, or normal value. The response loop that controls the critical value activates when the variable moves outside a predetermined normal range.

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33
Q

Feedforward control

A

provides a response in anticipation of an event

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34
Q

Set-points __ between people and over time

A

vary

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35
Q

Biorhythms

A

some variables follow environmental changes

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36
Q

Circadian rhythm

A

some variables follow a daily (24hr) cycle

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37
Q

Variability

A

there is wide genetic and environmental variability between humans

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38
Q

In a ___ study each individual gets the experimental treatment and then “__ __” to also be in the control group

A

In a crossover study, each individual gets the experimental treatment and then “crosses over” to also be in the control group

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39
Q

In a cross-over study, each individual acts as _____

A

In a cross-over study, each individual acts as their own control, enabling researchers to see the effect of the drug in each participant, rather than between two groups, which helps deal with variability between participants

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40
Q

Placebo effect

A

if you give someone a pill and tell them it will alleviate some problem, that beneficial effect may be observed, even the pill contains sugar or an inert substance

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41
Q

Nocebo effect

A

if you give someone a pill and tell them it may have an adverse side effect, that side effect may be observed, even the pill contains sugar or an inert substance

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42
Q

Simplest way to control for placebo and nocebo effects is with

A

a blind study- in which the participants do not know if they took the treatment or the placebo

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43
Q

Double-blind study

A

researchers are also “blinded” until after the experiment. So that they can not influence the outcome

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44
Q

Organic molecules

A

molecules that contain carbon

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45
Q

Biomolecules

A

organic molecules in living organisms

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46
Q

Biomolecules provide ___, store ___ and regulate ___

A

Biomolecules provide structure, store energy and regulate metabolism

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47
Q

Conjugated proteins

A

proteins combined with another molecule e.g. lipoproteins

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48
Q

Glycosylated molecules

A

molecules attached to carbohydrates e.g. glycoproteins and glycolipids

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49
Q

Polymers

A

biomolecules made of repeating units e.g. glucose polymers glycogen and starch

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50
Q

Ions

A

if an atom or molecule gains or loses one or more electrons, it acquires an electrical charge and becomes an ion. Ions are the basis for electrical signaling in the body

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51
Q

Covalent bonds

A

electrons shared between atoms form strong covalent bonds that bind atoms together to form molecules

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52
Q

Ionic bonds

A

are electrostatic attractions between ions

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53
Q

High-energy electrons

A

electrons in certain atoms can capture energy from their environment and transfer it to other atoms

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54
Q

Free radicals

A

are unstable molecules with an unpaired electron. They are thought to contribute to aging and to the development of certain diseases

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55
Q

Cations

A

lost electrons, positively charged

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56
Q

Anions

A

gained electrons, negatively charged

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57
Q

Covalent bonds

A

when two or more atoms form covalent bonds by sharing electrons, they form molecules

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58
Q

Ionic bonds are __ ___ between ions

A

electrostatic attractions

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59
Q

Interactions occur between and within molecules as a result of the ….

A

four types of bonds (covalent, ionic, hydrogen, Van Der Waals)

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60
Q

The ____ nature of a molecule determines whether that molecule can dissolve in water

A

charged, uncharged or partially charged

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61
Q

Covalent and non-covalent bonds determine …

A

molecular shape and function

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62
Q

Noncovalent interactions allow proteins to …

A

interact reversibly, creating functional pairings such as enzymes and substrates or signal receptors and molecules

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63
Q

Carbohydrates that are used fast

A

glucose, sucrose, maltose, lactose, maltodextrin, amylopectin (starch)

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64
Q

Carbohydrates that are used slow

A

fructose, galactose, amylose (starch)

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65
Q

Sugars used for nucleotides

A

ribose and deoxyribose

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66
Q

Sugars used for glycolysis

A

glucose

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67
Q

Monosaccharides

A

simple sugars, building blocks of complex carbohydrates and have either five carbons or six

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68
Q

Disaccharides

A

consist of glucose plus another monosaccharide e.g. sucrose and maltose

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69
Q

Polysaccharides

A

glucose polymers, how living cells store glucose for energy e.g. glycogen

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70
Q

Better sport performance with …

A

carb blends (glucose:fructose mixes improves performance)

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71
Q

Backbone of lipids

A

glycerol

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72
Q

Lipids are made of ___ and __ ___

A

Lipids are made of glycerol and fatty acids

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73
Q

Saturated fatty acid

A

no double bonds between carbons

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74
Q

Monosaturated fatty acid

A

one double bond between carbons

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75
Q

Polyunsaturated fatty acid

A

two or more double bonds between carbons

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76
Q

Unsaturated fatty acids have a ___ in their structure

A

bend/kink (because of double bonds)

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77
Q

Solubility

A

ability of solute to dissolve in a solvent

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78
Q

Hydrophilic

A

soluble in water e.g. ions, polar molecules, ionic molecules

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79
Q

Hydrophobic

A

not soluble in water e.g. nonpolar molecules

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80
Q

Hydrophilic interactions

A

occur between water and ions or other polar molecules. Ions and polar molecules dissolve in water and create biological solutions

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81
Q

Nucleotides

A

play an important role in energy and information transfer

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82
Q

Single nucleotides

A

include the energy transferring compounds ATP, ADP and AMP

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83
Q

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

A

common energy currency of the body

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84
Q

Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) are __ ___ that store and transmit genetic information

A

Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) are nucleotide polymers that store and transmit genetic information

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85
Q

__ __ are the building blocks of proteins

A

amino acids

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86
Q

Oligopeptide

A

2-9 amino acids

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87
Q

Polypeptide

A

10-100 amino acids

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88
Q

Proteins

A

> 100 amino acids

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89
Q

Secondary structure of peptides and proteins

A

created primarily by hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains or loops e.g. alpha helix, beta-strands that form sheets

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90
Q

Tertiary structure of peptides and proteins

A

is the protein’s 3D shape, can be a mix of secondary structures e.g. fibrous proteins, globular proteins

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91
Q

Quaternary structure of peptides and proteins

A

multiple subunits combine with noncovalent bonds e.g. hemoglobin

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92
Q

___ have the most complex shapes of all the biomolecules

A

proteins

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93
Q

Enzymes

A

not participants in reactions (not ingredients just get ingredients ready). Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions

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94
Q

Membrane transporters

A

in cell membranes help move substances back and forth between ICF and ECF

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95
Q

Signal molecules

A

act as hormones and other signal molecules

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96
Q

Receptors

A

proteins that bind signal molecules and initiate cellular responses

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97
Q

Binding proteins

A

bind and transport molecules throughout the body

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98
Q

Immunoglobulins (antibodies)

A

extracellular immune proteins that help protect the body from foreign invaders and substances

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99
Q

Regulatory proteins

A

turn cell processes on and off

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100
Q

Binding site and ligand interact through…

A

hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and van der Waals forces

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101
Q

The protein’s binding site changes shape (___) to fit more closely to the ___

A

The protein’s binding site changes shape (conformation) to fit more closely to the ligand

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102
Q

Binding sites

A

the location on a protein where a substrate can adhere. Proteins are selective about the molecules they bind

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103
Q

Specificity

A

ability of a protein to bind to a certain ligand or a group of closely-related ligands. Ligand binding requires molecular complementarity, the ligand and the protein binding site must be compatible, but it does not have to be a perfect fit

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104
Q

Law of mass action

A

when protein binding is at equilibrium, the ratio of the bound and unbound components remains constant

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105
Q

What happens to equilibrium when the concentration changes?

A

if equilibrium is disturbed by adding or removing one of the products, the reaction equation will shift direction to restore the equilibrium condition

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106
Q

Cofactors

A

required for an active binding site, without the cofactor attached the protein is not active

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107
Q

Allosteric activators

A

a modulator that binds to protein away from binding site and turns it on

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108
Q

Chemical modulators

A

bind reversibly or irreversibly to proteins and alter their binding affinity

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109
Q

Antagonists (inhibitors)

A

chemical modulators that bind to a protein and decrease its activity

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110
Q

Competitive inhibitor

A

blocks ligand binding at the binding site

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111
Q

Irreversible inhibitor

A

bind and cannot be replaced

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112
Q

Allosteric inhibitor

A

modulator that binds to protein away from binding site and inactivates the binding site, causes protein to change shape

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113
Q

Physical factors

A

physical conditions have dramatic effects on protein structure and function e.g. small changes in pH or temperature can modulate protein activity

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114
Q

When the protein loses its conformation it is said to be …

A

denatured

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115
Q

Up-regulation

A

the programmed production of new proteins

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116
Q

Down-regulation

A

the programmed removal of proteins

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117
Q

Free __ can change a molecule’s shape or conformation

A

H+

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118
Q

pH

A

the measure of the concentration of free H+ concentration or the acidity of a substance, power of hydrogen

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119
Q

Buffers

A

substances that moderate changes in pH (homeostatic)

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120
Q

Important buffer in the human body

A

bicarbonate anion (HCO3-)

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121
Q

Acids

A

a molecule that contributes to H+ to a solution, decrease pH

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122
Q

Bases

A

a molecule that decreases the H+ of a solution by combining with free H+, increase pH

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123
Q

__ are separated from one another by bones and tissues and they are lined with tissue membranes

A

Cavities are separated from one another by bones and tissues and they are lined with tissue membranes

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124
Q

Lumen

A

the interior of any hollow organ

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125
Q

For some organs the lumen is part of the …

A

external environment

126
Q

Material must cross the wall of the organ to enter …

A

the internal environment

127
Q

Functions of the cell membrane

A

physical isolation, regulation of exchange with the environment, communication between the cell and its environment, structural support and secretion

128
Q

Physical isolation (Cell membrane)

A

physical barrier that separates ICF from ECF

129
Q

Regulation of exchange with the environment (Cell membrane)

A

control entry of ions and nutrients, elimination of wastes, release of products

130
Q

Communication between the cell and its environment (Cell membrane)

A

proteins enable the cell to recognize and respond to molecules or changes in the external environment

131
Q

Structural support (Cell membrane)

A

membrane proteins anchor the cytoskeleton to maintain cell shape or create junctions between adjacent cells or between cells and the extracellular matrix

132
Q

Secretion (Cell membrane)

A

process by which a cell releases a substance to the ECF

133
Q

Cell membrane

A

thin layer of lipids that separate the inside and outside of the cell, create a hydrophobic barrier

134
Q

When placed in an aqueous solution, phospholipids align so their ___ ___ interact with water while the nonpolar fatty acid tails “___” by putting the polar heads between themselves and the water

A

When placed in an aqueous solution, phospholipids align so their polar heads interact with water while the nonpolar fatty acid tails “hide” by putting the polar heads between themselves and the water

135
Q

Micelles

A

droplets of phospholipids, important in lipid digestion

136
Q

Peripheral proteins

A

attach to membrane proteins by noncovalent interactions, removal does not disrupt membrane integrity

137
Q

Integral proteins

A

tightly bound to the membrane, removal disrupts membrane integrity

138
Q

The ___ and ___ ___ build proteins

A

ER and Golgi Apparatus

139
Q

Inclusions

A

are substances in the ICF that do not have boundary membranes e.g. glycogen, fat droplets, ribosomes, pigments

140
Q

Ribosomes

A

small granules of RNA and protein that manufacture proteins under the direction of the cells DNA

141
Q

Fixed ribosomes

A

attach to the inside surface of organelles

142
Q

Free ribosomes

A

suspended free in the cytosol

143
Q

Purpose of the insoluble protein fibers

A

structural support and movement

144
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

flexible, changeable scaffolding of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules that extends throughout the cytoplasm

145
Q

Motor proteins

A

convert stored energy into directed movement, use energy stored in ATP to propel selves along cytoskeleton fiber

146
Q

Myosins

A

bind to actin fibers, role in muscle contraction

147
Q

Organelles

A

subcellular compartments separated from the cytosol by phospholipid membranes, allows the cell to isolate substances and segregate functions

148
Q

Secretory vesicles

A

contain proteins that will be released from cell

149
Q

Storage vesicles

A

never leave cytoplasm

150
Q

Histology

A

the study of tissue structure and function- shape and size of the cells, arrangement of cells in the tissue, the way cells are connected, and amount of extracellular material present in the tissue

151
Q

Extracellular matrix (matrix)

A

extracellular material that is synthesized and secreted by the cells of a tissue

152
Q

Components of extracellular matrix

A

proteoglycans and insoluble protein fibers

153
Q

Proteoglycans

A

covalently bound to polysacchaaride chains

154
Q

Insoluble protein fibers

A

collagen, fibronectin and laminin

155
Q

Cell junctions

A

membrane proteins and extracellular matrix that hold cells together to form tissues

156
Q

During growth and development, cells form ____ ___ that may be transient or that may develop into more permanent cell junctions

A

During growth and development, cells form cell-cell adhesions that may be transient or that may develop into more permanent cell junctions

157
Q

Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs)

A

membrane-spanning proteins responsible both for cell junctions and for transient cell adhesions

158
Q

Cell-cell or cell-matrix adhesions mediated by CAMs are essential for ___ ___ and ___

A

Cell-cell or cell-matrix adhesions mediated by CAMs are essential for normal growth and development

159
Q

Tissue types

A

epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural

160
Q

Epithelial tissues

A

protect the internal environment of the body, regulate the exchange of materials between the internal and external environments

161
Q

Epithelia typically consist of ___ or ___ layers of cells connected to one another, with a ___ layer of extracellular matrix lying between the epithelial cells and their underlying tissues

A

Epithelia typically consist of one or more layers of cells connected to one another, with a thin layer of extracellular matrix lying between the epithelial cells and their underlying tissues

162
Q

Any substance that enters or leaves the internal environment of the body must cross an ___

A

Any substance that enters or leaves the internal environment of the body must cross an epithelium

163
Q

Some epithelia (skin, mucous membranes) act as a ___ to keep water in the body and invaders such as bacteria out

A

Some epithelia (skin, mucous membranes) act as a barrier to keep water in the body and invaders such as bacteria out

164
Q

Nutrients, gases, and wastes often must cross ___ different ___ as they pass between cells and the outside world

A

Nutrients, gases and wastes often must cross several different epithelia as they pass between cells and the outside world

165
Q

Connective tissues

A

provide structural support and sometimes a physical barrier that, along with specialized cells, helps defend the body from foreign invaders such as bacteria

166
Q

Bone

A

calcifies which gives it it’s strength and rigidity

167
Q

Cartilage

A

solid, flexible, lack of blood supply

168
Q

Adipose tissue

A

(adipocytes), energy storage, temperature regulation, protective layer

169
Q

Blood

A

transportation of materials

170
Q

Muscle tissue

A

can contract and produce force and movement. Most skeletal muscles attach to bones and are responsible for gross movement of the body

171
Q

Together muscle and neural tissues are called the ___ tissues because they can generate and propagate electrical signals

A

Together muscle and neural tissues are called the excitable tissues because they can generate and propagate electrical signals

172
Q

Neural tissue

A

includes two types of cells, neurons, or nerve cells, which carry chemical and electrical signals from one part of the body to another

173
Q

Glial cells or neuroglia

A

support cells for neurons

174
Q

Necrosis

A

cells die from physical trauma, toxins or lack of oxygen (may damage adjacent cells triggering inflammatory response)

175
Q

Apoptosis

A

programmed cell death, regulated by chemical signals (does not damage adjacent cells)

176
Q

Stem cells

A

undifferentiated cells, retain the ability to divide and develop into the cell types of that tissue

177
Q

First law of thermodynamics or law of conversation of energy

A

total amount of energy in the universe is constant

178
Q

Energy is the capacity to do …

A

work

179
Q

Chemical work

A

making and breaking of chemical bonds

180
Q

Transport work

A
  • moving ions, molecules, and larger particles
  • useful for creating concentration gradients
181
Q

Mechanical work

A
  • moving organelles, changing cell shape, beating flagella and cilia
  • contracting muscles
182
Q

Forms of energy

A

kinetic and potential

183
Q

Second law of thermodynamics

A

processes move from sate of order to randomness or disorder (entropy)

184
Q

Free energy

A

is potential energy stored in chemical bonds

185
Q

Net free energy

A

change determines reaction reversibility

186
Q

Endergonic reactions

A

energy utilizing

187
Q

Exergonic reactions

A

energy producing, breaking bonds

188
Q

Enzymes __ the activation energy of reactions

A

Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions

189
Q

Enzymes are or are NOT reactants or products

A

Enzymes are NOT reactants or products

190
Q

Binding site

A

interacts with substrate and accelerates conversion of substrate into product

191
Q

Enzymes are __ ___ in these reactions so can be used again

A

Enzymes are not altered in these reactions so can be used again

192
Q

isozymes

A

different forms of enzymes (isoform)

193
Q

Inactive enzymes

A

proenzymes or zymogens

194
Q

cofactors types that help enzymes

A

coenzymes

195
Q

Catabolism

A

energy-releasing breakdown

196
Q

Anabolism

A

energy-utilizing synthesis, building something up

197
Q

Kilocalories (kcal)

A

energy released from or stored in chemical bonds

198
Q

Molecules in pathways are___

A

intermediates

199
Q

Osmosis

A

the movement of water across a membrane in response to a solute concentration gradient

200
Q

Osmolarity

A

the number of osmotically active particles (ions or intact molecules) per liter of solution

201
Q

Most solutes are concentrated in either one compartment or the other, creating a state of ___ ____

A

Most solutes are concentrated in either one compartment or the other, creating a state of chemical disequilibrium

202
Q

Cations and anions are not distributed equally between the body compartments, creating a state of ___ ____

A

Cations and anions are not distributed equally between the body compartments, creating a state of electrical disequilibrium

203
Q

Water moves freely between the cells and extracellular fluid, resulting in a state of ___ ____

A

Water moves freely between the cells and extracellular fluid, resulting in a state of osmotic equilibrium

204
Q

The body fluids are in two compartments: the ___ fluid (__) and the ___ fluid (___)

A

The body fluids are in two compartments: the extracellular fluid (ECF) and the intracellular fluid (ICF)

205
Q

Homeostasis

A

stability of body’s internal environment (stability of ECF)

206
Q

ECF and ICF exist in state of ___ ___

A

ECF and ICF exist in state of dynamic disequilibrium

207
Q

The cell membrane is a ___ ___ barrier that restricts free exchange between the cell and interstitial fluid. The movement of a substance across a membrane depends on the ___ of the membrane to that substance

A

The cell membrane is a selectively permeable barrier that restricts free exchange between the cell and interstitial fluid. The movement of a substance across a membrane depends on the permeability of the membrane to that substance

208
Q

Movement of molecules across membranes can be classified either by ___ ___ or by the ___ ___ the molecule uses to cross the membrane

A

Movement of molecules across membranes can be classified either by energy requirements or by the physical means the molecule uses to cross the membrane

209
Q

Lipid-soluble substances can diffuse through ____ ___. Less lipid-soluble molecules require the assistance of a ___ ___ or ___ to cross the membrane

A

Lipid-soluble substances can diffuse through phospholipid bilayer. Less lipid-soluble molecules require the assistance of a membrane protein or vesicle to cross the membrane

210
Q

___ transport does not require the input of energy

A

Passive transport does not require the input of energy

211
Q

___, ___, ___ ___ and __ move easily across most membranes

A

Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipids move easily across most membranes

212
Q

___ and most ___ molecules and __ __ molecules e.g. proteins cannot cross easily

A

Ions and most polar molecules and very large molecules e.g. proteins cannot cross easily

213
Q

Diffusion

A

passive movement of molecules down a chemical (concentration) gradient from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

214
Q

Net movement created by diffusion stops when the system reaches ___, although molecular movement continues

A

Net movement created by diffusion stops when the system reaches equilibrium, although molecular movement continues

215
Q

Membrane proteins have 4 functional roles: ___ proteins maintain cell shape and form cell junctions; ___-___ enzymes catalyze chemical reactions and help transfer signals across the membrane; ___ proteins are part of the body’s signaling system; and ___ proteins move many molecules into or out of the cell

A

Membrane proteins have 4 functional roles: structural proteins maintain cell shape and form cell junctions; membrane-associated enzymes catalyze chemical reactions and help transfer signals across the membrane; receptor proteins are part of the body’s signaling system; and transport proteins move many molecules into or out of the cell

216
Q

___ ___ form water-filled channels that link the intracellular and extracellular compartments

A

channel proteins form water-filled channels that link the intracellular and extracellular compartments

217
Q

___ ___ regulate movement of substances through them by opening and closing. They may be regulated by ligands, by the ___ state of the cell, or by the ___ changes such as pressure

A

Gated channels regulate movement of substances through them by opening and closing. They may be regulated by ligands, by the electrical state of the cell, or by the physical changes such as pressure

218
Q

___ ___ never form a continuous connection between the intracellular and extracellular fluid. They bind to substrates, then change conformation

A

Carrier proteins never form a continuous connection between the intracellular and extracellular fluid. They bind to substrates, then change conformation

219
Q

Protein-mediated diffusion is called ___ ___. It has the same properties as simple diffusion

A

Protein-mediated diffusion is called facilitated diffusion. It has the same properties as simple diffusion

220
Q

Gated channels are usually ___. They __ in response to chemical, mechanical, or electrical signals

A

Gated channels are usually closed. They open in response to chemical, mechanical, or electrical signals

221
Q

Uniport carriers

A

transport only one kind of substrate

222
Q

Symport carriers

A

move two or more substances in the same direction across the membrane

223
Q

Antiport carriers

A

move substances in opposite directions

224
Q

Both passive and active forms of carrier-mediated transport exhibit …

A

specificity, competition and saturation

225
Q

Specificity

A

ability of a transporter to move only one molecule or a group of closely related molecules

226
Q

Competition

A

related molecules may compete for a single transporter

227
Q

Saturation

A

occurs when a group of membrane transporters are working at their maximum rate

228
Q

___ transport moves molecules against their concentration gradient and requires an outside source of energy

A

Active transport moves molecules against their concentration gradient and requires an outside source of energy

229
Q

In ___ (__) __ transport, the energy comes directly from ATP

A

In primary (direct) active transport, the energy comes directly from ATP

230
Q

___ (___) ___ transport uses the potential energy stored in a concentration gradient and is indirectly driven by energy from ATP

A

Secondary (indirect) active transport uses the potential energy stored in a concentration gradient and is indirectly driven by energy from ATP

231
Q

The most important primary active transporter is the __-___-___, which pumps Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell

A

The most important primary active transporter is the sodium-potassium-ATPase, which pumps Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell

232
Q

Most secondary active transport systems are driven by the ___ ___ gradient

A

Most secondary active transport systems are driven by the sodium concentration gradient

233
Q

electrical signals

A

change cell membrane potential

234
Q

chemical signals

A

molecules secreted by cells and received by target cells, most common

235
Q

Local communication

A

gap junctions, contact-dependent, autocrine/paracrine

236
Q

Long distance communication

A

endocrine, neurotransmitters and neurohormones

237
Q

Gap junctions

A

create cytoplasmic bridges, found in most cell types, crosses both cell plasma membranes

238
Q

Contact-dependent signals

A

require cell-to-cell contacts, occur in immune system and during growth and development

239
Q

Autocrine signals

A

act on same cell that secreted them

240
Q

Paracrine signals

A

secreted by one cell and diffuse to adjacent cells

241
Q

Hormones

A

released from endocrine cells to go to the bloodstream

242
Q

Neurocrine

A

released from neurons (neurotransmitter, neuromodulator, neurohormone)

243
Q

Cytokines

A

peptides, both local and long-distance

244
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

chemicals secreted by neurons that diffuse across a small gap to the target cell, neurons use electrical signals as well

245
Q

Neurohormones

A

chemicals released by neurons into the blood for action at distant targets e.g. epinephrine

246
Q

The ligand is also called..

A

first messenger

247
Q

lipophobic signal molecules

A

bind to membrane receptor proteins (on cell membrane) that activates intracellular signal molecules

248
Q

lipophilic signal molecules

A

diffuse through the cell membrane, inside the cell they bind to cytosolic receptors or nuclear receptors and activates intracellular signal molecules

249
Q

The binding to cytosolic or nuclear receptors of lipophilic or intracellular signal receptors triggers…

A

slower responses related to changes in gene activity

250
Q

Signal amplification

A

allows a small amount of signal to have a large effect

251
Q

Transduction pathway steps

A
  1. Signal molecule binds to membrane receptor
  2. Membrane receptor initiates signal transduction by proteins and amplifier enzymes
  3. Amplifier enzymes leads to second messenger molecules which alter ion channels
  4. Second messenger molecules –> protein kinases (ATP)–> phosphorylated proteins OR –> increase intracellular Ca2+ –> calcium-binding proteins = cell response
252
Q

most signal transduction uses….

A

G proteins

253
Q

ion channels

A

ligand binding opens or closes the channel, found mostly in nerve and muscle, change permeability to an ion, rapid flow of an ion= rapid response from the cell

254
Q

G protein-coupled receptor

A

ligand binding to a G protein-coupled receptor opens an ion channel or alters enzyme activity, 3-part transducer molecule, use lipid-derived second messengers (e.g. phospholipase C/PLC, diacylglycerol/ DAG, inositol triphosphate)

255
Q

Many lipophobic hormones use..

A

G pathways e.g. adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system

256
Q

Adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system

A
  1. signal molecule binds to G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), which activates the G protein
  2. G protein turns on adenylyl cyclase, an amplifier enzyme
  3. Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP)
  4. cAMP activates protein kinase A
  5. Protein kinase A phosphorylates other proteins, leading ultimately to a cellular response
257
Q

GPCR-phospholipase C signal transduction

A
  1. signal molecule activates receptor and associated G protein
  2. G protein activates phospholipase C (PLC), an amplifier enzyme
  3. PLC converts membrane phospholipids into diacylglycerol (DAG), which remains in the membrane, and inositol triphosphate (IP3), which diffuses into the cytoplasm
  4. DAG activates protein kinase C (PKC), which phosphorylates proteins
  5. IP3 causes release of Ca2+ from organelles, creating a Ca2+ signal
258
Q

What kind of receptor does insulin use

A

tyrosine kinase (TK)

259
Q

Calcium induces …

A

calcium release (cardiac muscle), Ca2+ spark

260
Q

Calcium is an important ___ ___

A

intracellular signal

261
Q

Calcium enters through ..

A

gated channels (voltage, ligand, or mechanical)

262
Q

Calcium may be released from ..

A

intracellular compartments by second messengers

263
Q

Calcium binds ___ or other regulatory proteins

A

calmodulin

264
Q

Soluble gases are __-__ paracrines or ___

A

Soluble gases are short-acting paracrines or autocrines

265
Q

Best known soluble gase nitric oxic (NO) is produced by ___ cells and is synthesized by the action of ___ ___ ___ (NOS). It diffuses into ___ muscle and causes ___. It activates ___ cyclase –> cGMP. It acts as a neurotransmitter and ___ in the brain.

A

Best known soluble gase nitric oxic (NO) is produced by endothelial cells and is synthesized by the action of nitric oxide synthase (NOS). It diffuses into smooth muscle and causes vasodilation. It activates guanylyl cyclase –> cGMP. It acts as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in the brain.

266
Q

Up and down-regulation enable cells to ___ ___

A

Up and down-regulation enable cells to modulate responses

267
Q

The primary ligand ___ a ___

A

The primary ligand activates a receptor

268
Q

An agonist also ____ the receptor

A

An agonist also activates the receptor

269
Q

An antagonist ___ receptor activity

A

An antagonist blocks receptor activity= no response

270
Q

Constriction or dilation of vessels: epinephrine+ alpha-receptor

A

Constriction

271
Q

Constriction or dilation of vessels: epinephrine+ beta2-receptor

A

dilation

272
Q

Tonic control

A

regulates physiological parameters in an up-down fashion. The signal is always present but changes in intensity

273
Q

Antagonistic control

A

modulates the activity of an organ system by two separate regulators which act in opposition e.g. parasympathetic and sympathetic

274
Q

Insulin promotes glucose __ and inhibits ___ ___

A

Insulin promotes glucose uptake and inhibits fat breakdown

275
Q

Glycemic index (GI)

A

rating system for foods containing carbohydrates. It shows how quickly each food affects your blood sugar (glucose) level when that food is eaten on its own.

276
Q

Hormones control…

A

growth and development, metabolism, regulate internal environment and reproduction

277
Q

Hormones act on target cells by controlling…

A
  1. rate of enzymatic reactions
  2. transport of ions or molecules across cell membranes
  3. gene expression and protein synthesis
278
Q

Solubility is important because it helps to determine…

A

receptor location (inside or out), transport in plasma (free or bound), and length of action (short or long)

279
Q

Peptide and protein are lipid __

A

insoluble

280
Q

Steroids are lipid __

A

soluble

281
Q

Amines are lipid __

A

soluble (thyroid hormones) and insoluble (catecholamines)

282
Q

Synthesis and storage of peptide hormones

A

made in advance, stored in secretory vesicles

283
Q

Release from parent cell: peptide hormones

A

exocytosis

284
Q

Transport in blood: peptide hormones

A

dissolved in plasma

285
Q

Half-life: peptide hormones

A

short

286
Q

Location of receptor: peptide hormones

A

cell membrane

287
Q

Response to receptor-ligand binding: Peptide hormones

A

activation of second messenger systems; may activate genes

288
Q

General target response: peptide hormones

A

modification of existing proteins and induction of new protein synthesis

289
Q

Examples of peptide hormones

A

insulin, parathyroid hormone

290
Q

synthesis and storage: steroid hormones

A

synthesized on demand from precursors

291
Q

release from parent cell: steroid hormones

A

simple diffusion

292
Q

transport in blood: steroid hormones

A

bound to carrier proteins

293
Q

half-life: steroid hormones

A

long

294
Q

location of receptor: steroid hormones

A

cytoplasm or nucleus, some have membrane receptors too

295
Q

response to receptor-ligand binding: steroid hormones

A

activation of genes for transcription and translation; may have nongenomic actions

296
Q

general target response: steroid hormones

A

induction of new protein synthesis

297
Q

examples of steroid hormones

A

estrogen, androgens, cortisol

298
Q

synthesis and storage: Catecholamines

A

made in advance; stored in secretory vesicles

299
Q

release from parent cell: catecholamines

A

exocytosis

300
Q

transport in blood: catecholamines

A

dissolved in plasma

301
Q

half-life: catecholamines

A

short

302
Q

location of receptor: catecholamines

A

cell membrane

303
Q

response to receptor-ligand binding: catecholamines

A

activation of second messenger systems

304
Q

general target response: catecholamines

A

modification of existing proteins

305
Q

examples of catecholamines

A

epinephrine, norepinephrine

306
Q

synthesis and storage: thyroid hormones

A

made in advance; precursor stored in secretory vesicles

307
Q

release from parent cell: thyroid hormones

A

simple diffusion

308
Q

transport in blood: thyroid hormones

A

bound to carrier proteins

309
Q

half-life: thyroid hormones

A

long

310
Q

location of receptor: thyroid hormones

A

nucleus

311
Q

response to receptor-ligand binding: thyroid hormones

A

activation of genes for transcription and translation

312
Q

general target response: thyroid hormones

A

induction of new protein synthesis

KIN 101 (1 decks)

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