Midterm 1 Flashcards
Sociological Perspective
A view of the world that focuses on explaining social patterns rather than individual behaviors.
The sociological perspective aims to address (and frame issues as) social issues rather than personal troubles.
Critical Approach to Sociology
The study of Sociology that focuses on the sources, nature, and consequences of power relationships.
Characteristics of Critical Sociologist
- Challenge assumptions about the current state of society and/or the study of sociology.
- Focus on the sources, nature, and consequences of power relationships.
- Emphasize the role of social insititutions and power beliefs in reinforcing existing power distributions.
Sociology in Medicine vs. Sociology of Medicine
- Sociology in Medicine: Research is limited to questions about social life considered useful/interesting to the medical profession.
- Sociology of Medicine: Reseach is designed to answer questions about social life considered useful/interesting to sociologists in general.
The Sociology of Medicine approach is more likely to challenge the interests of the medical profession and power relationships within healthcare.
Sociology
The scientific study of social life, social change, and social causes/consequences of human behavior.
Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and socieities (and how people interact within these social structures).
Sociological Imagination
The ability to draw connections between personal experiences of individuals and larger social forces.
The sociological imagination challenges the belief that individuals create their own fates.
Epidemic
- Any significant increase in the number of people affected by a particular disease.
- The first appearance of a particular disease.
What were the most common causes of death in the United States prior to 1900?
- Infectious/Parasitic Diseases
- Acute Diseases
- Famine
Examples: Infectious Diseases
- Bubonic Plague
- Smallpox
- Cholera
- Typhoid
- Influenza
- Pneumonia
- Typhus
- Measles
- Tuberculosis
Examples: Acute Diseases
- Bubonic Plague
- Smallpox
- Cholera
- Typhoid
- Influenza
- Pneumonia
- Typhus
- Measles
Tuberculosis is not an acute disease (i.e. it is a chronic disease).
Examples: Chronic Diseases
- Cardiovascular Disease
- Cancer
- Diabetes
- Arthritis
- Asthma
- Muscular Dystrophy
Tuberculosis is not an acute disease (i.e. it is a chronic disease).
What factors caused the low life expectancies and frequent epidemics of Middle-Aged European countries?
- Urbanization: Increases in commerce and trade allowed for rapid transmission of infectious disease.
- Waste Mismanagement: Lack of sewage systems enabled water-borne diseases from human waste to fluorish.
- Migration/Trade: Religious pilgrimmages/crusades and long-distance trade increased human-to-human disease transmission.
- Malnutrition: Widespread defiencies in nutrition resulted in immunodeficiencies and low life expectancies.
- War: Frequent instances of violence led to high death rates and rampant wound infections.
What factors hindered significant increases in life expectancy in Europe during the 15th/16th centuries?
- Malnutrition
- War
What factors enabled life expectancies to increase by the early 18th century?
- Warfare Changes: Movement of wars/battles away from urban/population-dense regions protected citizens from violence and war-associated diseases.
- Development of New Crops: Discovery of new/resilient crops and crop strains improved people’s diets and better enabled them to resist disease.
- Lower Fertility Rate: Chances of survival for mothers and children increased as women gave birth to fewer children at older ages.
- Lower Infant/Women Mortaility Rate: Women engaging in less frequent/prolonged bouts of physical labor improved their chances of childbirth survival and increased the nutrional quality of breastfed milk.
Pandemic
Worldwide Epidemics
Endemic
A disease being estabished within a population at a stable level.
Chronic Disease
A disease that typically lasts for several years or more.
Acute Disease
A disease that strikes suddently and disappears quickly (and may kill their victim).
E.g. Influenza, COVID-19, Pneumonia
Life Expectancy
The average number of years an individual can expect to live (at the time of their birth).
ETM: Stage 1
Pestilence and Famine
“Natural” checks on the human population (i.e. infectious dieases, parasitic diseases, human accidents, famine) led to stagnant population growth rates.
- Birth Rate = High
- Death Rate = High
ETM: Stage 2
Receding Pandemics
Improvements in sanitation, nutrition, womens’ health, and healthcare infrastructure allowed for rapid population growth.
- Birth Rate = High
- Death Rate = Rapidly Declining
Epidemiological Transition Model
ETM
- Stage 1: Pestilence and Famine
- Stage 2: Receding Pandemics
- Stage 3: Degenerative/Man-Made Diseases
- Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative Diseases
- Stage 5: Resurgence of Infectious Diseases
Definition: Epidemiological Transition
The shift from a society characterized by infectious/parasitic diseases and low life expectancies to one characterized by degenerative/chronic diseases and high life expectancies.
ETM: Stage 3
Degenerative Diseases
Significant increases in life expectancies (due to improved medical technology and better standards of living) resulted in the rise of chronic/degenerative illnesses.
- Birth Rate = Declining Rapidly
- Death Rate = Slowly Declining
ETM: Stage 4
Delayed Degenerative Diseases
Further increases in life expectancy (due to improvements in medicine, nutrition, healthcare infrastructure, and standards of living) led to even greater prevalences of chronic/degenerative disease.
- Birth Rate = Low
- Death Rate = Low
Why did certain life expectancies decrease due to industrialization?
The rapid urbanization associated with industrialization created issues of overcrowding, poor infrastructure, dismal hygeine, food contamination, and dangerous working conditions.
The urban poor suffered the greatest decreases in life expectancies during industrialization.
When did life expectancies begin to increase significantly?
1900–1930
The decrease in infancy deaths and parastic-/infection-related deaths allowed for improvements in life span.
What factors were responsible for the increased life expenctancies in the United States after 1900?
- Increased Standards of Living
- Better Nutrition
- Improved Infrastructure (e.g. Sewage Systems)
- Greater Government Oversight (e.g. Food Regulations)
- Safer Work Environments
Disease vs. Illness
- Disease: A biological problem within an organism.
- Illness: The (subjective) social experiences and consequences of living with a disease.
Morbidity vs. Mortality
- Morbidity: Symptoms, Illnesses, Impairments
- Mortality: Death
Social Epidemiology
The study of how social behaviors and factors (e.g. social class, substance use) affect the distribution of disease within a population.
Epidemiology = The study of the distribution of disease within a population.
Prevalence vs. Incidence
- Incidence: The number of new occurrences of a disease/birth/death within a population in a given time period.
- Prevalence: The total number of cases (of a particular disease) within a population in a given time period.
Prevalence includes the newly diagnosed cases (i.e. Incidence) and the cases that have been diagnosed prior (and are still living with the condition).
Why do epidemiologists study rates of disease?
Studying rates allows for differences in population size (between countries/regions) to be taken into account.
Studying the rate (rather than the number) of a disease provides epidemiologists with a more accurate representation of the relative burden of a disease.
Rate Measures: Chronic Disease vs. Acute Disease
- The incidence rate best measures the spread of acute diseases.
- The prevalence rate best measures the frequency of chronic diseases.
Prevalence Rate
The proportion of people within a population (for a given time period) that are afflicted with the particular disease/condition.
The prevalence rate can also refer to the number of births or deaths within a population (for a given time period).
Incidence Rate
The proportion of people within a population that are newly afflicted with the particular disease/condition.
What factors have contributed to the recent reemergence of infectious diseases?
- Microbial Drug-Resistance (AMR)
- Globalization
- Urbanization
- Ecological Destruction
Factors Contributing to Microbial Drug Resistance
- Microbial Evolution
- Antimicrobial Overuse
- Immunization Opt-Out Policies
How has globalization contributed to recent rises in infectious diseases?
- Increased Inequality Within/Between Countries
- Movement of People (i.e. Migration, Vacation)
- Movement of Goods (i.e. Trade)
How has urbanization contributed to recent rises in infectious diseases?
- Increased Population Densities
- Decreased Health/Sanitation Regulations
The increased population densities caused by urbanization allows for the spread of disease to occur more readily.
How has ecological disruption contributed to recent rises in infectious diseases?
- Habitat Destruction (e.g. Deforestation)
- Increased Human-Animal Contact
- Climate Change
Climate change enables certain parasites/microorganisms to become endemic in previously uninhabitable regions.
Primary Prevention vs. Secondary Prevention vs. Tertiary Prevention
- Primary Prevention: Strategies aimed at preventing people from becoming ill/injured/disabled.
- Secondary Prevention: Strategies aimed at reducing the impact of disease/injury via early detection and prompt intervention.
- Tertiary Prevention: Strategies aimed at minimizing the physical deteriorations/complications of already ill/injured people.
Examples: Tertiary Prevention Strategies
- Medical/Disease Management
- Rehabilitation Services
- Dialysis Treatments
Examples: Secondary Prevention Strategies
- Regular Physical Check-Ups
- Health Screenings
- Expanded Access to Healthcare
Examples: Primary Prevention Strategies
- Anti-Drink Driving
- Water Safety Regulations
- Vaccinations
- Helmet Policies
- Lead Abatement Laws
- Drug Marketing Regulations
- Gun Control Policies
- Free School Meals
How does the illegality of drugs impact the health of drug users?
- Users are more likely to share needles (and increase their risk of infection transmission).
- Users are less likey to know how powerful a particular drug is.
- Users who purchase costly drugs are more vulnerable to illness (due to their high rates of poverty).
- Users who purchase costly drugs are more likely to experience violent crime (or inflict harm on other people).
What factors contribute to high rates of obesity in the U.S.?
- High-Calorie Diets
- Lack of Physical Activity
- Larger Portion Sizes
- Advertisement of High-Calorie Foods
Health Belief Model
A individual-centered model developed to explain why healthy people adopt healthy behaviors.
Health Belief Model: Four Components
- Perceived Susceptibility: One’s belief about the likelihood of acquiring the disease/condition.
- Perceived Severity: One’s belief about the seriousness/consequences of the disease/condition.
- **Perceived Benefits: **One’s belief that a particular action will reduce the severity/risk of the disease/condition.
- Perceived Barriers: One’s belief about the cost/obstacles to taking the particular action.
Health Belief Model: Moderating Factors
- Demographic Variables (e.g. Gender, Age, Ethnicity)
- Psychosocial Variables (e.g. Personality Characteristics, Peer Group Pressure)
- Structural Factors (e.g. Access to Knowledge, Contact with Similar People)
- External Cues to Action (e.g. Media Campaigns, Physician Advice)
Health Lifestyle Theory
A group-centered model that uses demographic circumstances, cultural memberships, and living conditions to explain the decisions behind healthy and unhealthy behaviors.
The Health Lifestyle Theory attempts to describe collective patterns of health-related behaviors through people’s life chances and life choices.
Agency vs. Structure
- Agency: An individual’s ability to make their own choices (independent of social/cultural limitations).
- Structure: The social/cultural/economic forces that limit the choices individuals can make.
Agency = Life Choices
Structure = Life Chances
Habitus
One’s enduring disposition to behave/act in such a way that is are deemed appropriate for that person (given their particular social situation/setting).
Health Belief Model vs. Health Lifestyle Theory
By emphasizing the group/social factors that moderate individual decisions, the Health Lifestyle Theory provides a more comprehensive analysis (than the Health Belief Model) of why healthy behaviors are or are not adopted.
Manufacturers of Illness
Individuals/groups/organizations that promote illness-causing behaviors.
Life Chances vs. Life Choices
- Life Chances: The opportunities allowed/possible for an individual as determined by their demographic characteristics, cultural memberships, and living conditions.
- Life Choices: The choices an individual is able to make as determined by their life chances.
