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Cognitive Psychology > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Lateralization

A

Linking traits to specific areas of the brain. Different hemispheres have different specializations.

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2
Q

Dualism

A

The belief that the soul and body are interactive but seperate

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3
Q

Localization of function

A

Principle that specific parts of the cortex are specialized for specific functions.

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4
Q

Structuralism

A

Elemental components of the mind

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5
Q

Functionalism

A

Emphasized that psychological functions were developed by evolution for their function and adaptive purpose.

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6
Q

Forgetting Curves

A

Made by Hermann Ebbinhaus; made up of nonsense syllables with no internal process inference.

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7
Q

Modularity hypothesis

A

Cognitive skills are mutually independent of other skills.

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8
Q

Nativism

A

The ability to learn the structure of a language is an innate mental program and independent of other skills.

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9
Q

Serial Processing

A

One level of processing to the next in order.

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10
Q

Parallel Processing

A

Processing things simultaneously, like identifying someone’s face by taking in their eyes lips and nose all at once.

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11
Q

Transformation of information

A

As information travels through the system it changes its code or form. Environmental input -> sense -> STS -> LTS.

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12
Q

Cell Body

A

Also known as the soma, containes the nucleus of the cell.

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13
Q

Dendrites

A

Receives messages from other neurons and accepts electrical signals.

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14
Q

Axon

A

Sends messages as electricity. The message is conducted down the axon as an electrical impulse.

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15
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Fatty covering of the axon to protect it from degradation. Speeds conduction of the message down the axon.

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16
Q

Synapse

A

End of the axons, contain synaptic terminals that are gaps between neurons that allow for the release of neurotransmitters.

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17
Q

Cerebellum

A

Coodrinated motor movement, skill learning, and some aspects of implicit and procedural memory.

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18
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

Involved in motor control, planning, decision-making, working memory, selective and focused attention, and langauge production.

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19
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

Involved in object recognition, memory, hearing, and speech perception.

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20
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

Vision

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21
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

Somatosensory cortex, spatial attention, detection of movement, and sensory integration.

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22
Q

Broadmanns’ Cytoarchitectonic Map

A

Map of areas of the brain based on cellular morphology and organization. Each part of the brain is slightly different from the area next to it.

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23
Q

CT/CAT Scan

A

X-ray technique that produces cross section pictures of the brain. Does not provide information on brain activity.

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24
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

Electrodes placed on the scalp and electrical activity is recorded in graphic form. Gathers information on which parts of the brain are electrically active.

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25
Q

Evoked Potential

A

Stimulus presented and brain waves measured.

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26
Q

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

A

Tests the relationship between brain structures and function by placing magnets on the skull to disrupt neural activity in the brain. Weak, low frequency waves numb parts of the brain and short, high frequency waves stimulate parts of the brain.

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27
Q

PET San

A

Radioactive glucose is injected into the bloodstream and active areas of the brain take up this glucose so radioactivity can be measured.

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28
Q

fMRI

A

Records brain activity by measuring changes in magnetic properties of blood as it changes oxygenation levels.

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29
Q

Double Dissociation

A

Are two skills modular/separate from each other?

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30
Q

Memory

A

Provides the basis for our adaptation to the environment and serves as a work space for us to carry out cognitive activities.

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31
Q

Multistore Model

A

Proposed that memory systems are made up of three separate structures: sensory store, STS, and LTS.

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32
Q

Capacity

A

How much information the store can hold at one time.

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33
Q

Duration

A

How long the information lasts in the store/form

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34
Q

Code

A

Depends on the modality, is how the information is stored in the brain.

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35
Q

STS Capacity

A

5-9 items

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36
Q

Sensory store Duration

A

1/3 of a second for iconic memory and 2-3 seconds for echoic memory.

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37
Q

Sensory store Code

A

Mimics modality by which the information was taken in, usually auditory or acoustic.

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38
Q

Proactive Interference

A

Early information interfers with encoding or retrieval of later innformation

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39
Q

Retroactive Information

A

Later information interferes with encoding or retrieval of earlier information.

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40
Q

Control Processes

A

Rehearsal, elaboration, organization, imagery, and rehearsal strategies for encoding into the LTM.

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41
Q

Rehearsal

A

Verbal reptition

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42
Q

elaboration

A

Constructing a story from a word list.

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43
Q

LTS Capacity

A

Unlimited

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44
Q

LTS Duration

A

Potentially unlimited

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45
Q

LTS Code

A

Semantic

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46
Q

LTS Declarative Memory

A

Memories that can be declared as either semantic memory or episodic memory.

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47
Q

LTS Nondeclarative Memory

A

Information that cannot easily be conveyed verbally, can also be the performance of motor tasks that we do not consciously think about.

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48
Q

Primacy Effect

A

First words in the list are recalled well

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49
Q

Recency Effect

A

Last words in the list are also recalled well.

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50
Q

Visual-Spatial Sketchpad

A

Temporary storage and maintenance of visual-spatial material. Reading something and creating a visual of it.

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51
Q

Central Executive

A

Determines what task will be carried out at various times. Three slave systems: phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer. Initiates decision-making task.

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52
Q

Episodic Memory (Declarative)

A

Autobiographical memories from our past as we remember it. Usually less clear memory since the event only happened once.

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53
Q

Semantic Memory (Declarative)

A

Knowledge of facts and meanings, thought of over and over.

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54
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

A person forgets part of their past due to some trauma.

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55
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Difficulty in learning new information after a trauma.

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56
Q

Source Amnesia

A

Remembering a piece of information but not knowing where the information came from.

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57
Q

Hippocampus

A

Important for laying down new memories and is more activated during retrieval or episodic memories. Makes new neurons.

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58
Q

Amygdala

A

Houses more emotional memories

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59
Q

Temporal Lobes

A

Important for semantic memories

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60
Q

Mnemonics

A

Strategies used to improve memory for new material. Visually oriented and verbally oriented strategies.

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61
Q

Keyword Method

A

A particular icon serving as the key to trigger the information you were waiting to learn. Is the most effective after learning the keywords.

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62
Q

Method of Loci

A

Used by Greek orators to remember their speeches; built a mind palace in their minds and placed the information in different rooms to retrieve it later.

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63
Q

Peg-Word Method

A

Requires a person first learn a rhyme involving numbers and then memorize a series of items by imaging each of them interacting with the rhyme.

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64
Q

Maintenance Rehearsal

A

Maintains the item at the same level of processing, like repeating the word over and over.

65
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

Entails moving to a deeper level of processing and linking incoming information to more meaningful concepts.

66
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Having the knowledge of a task, but not recollecting the memory.

67
Q

Explicit Memory

A

A memory that can be explicitly remembered

68
Q

State-Dependent Learning

A

Memory for information may depend on the internal state of the person doing the remembering. Memory is greatest if the person is in the same psychological or physical state as when the memory was taken and retrieved.

69
Q

Encoding

A

How a memory is stored. A person thinks about the experience as it unfolds, and how that information is taken in is the basis for how it is stored.

70
Q

Retrieval

A

Usually signaled as a cue from the environment that determines which aspect of the memory gets activated. Utilizes retrieval cues.

71
Q

Scripts

A

Specific types of schema; organized knowledge about typical actions. Involves the frontal lobes.

72
Q

Iconic Memory

A

Visual sensory store

73
Q

Echoic Memory

A

Auditory sensory memory; can hold information usually for 2 seconds. Limited capacity.

74
Q

Digit span

A

An indicator of short term store, usually about 5 to 9 items.

75
Q

Chunking

A

Grouping numbers into chunks increases recall ability; top-down and active processing. Remember less items as a whole.

76
Q

Decay

A

Lack of strong encoding in which information slowly fades over time if not revisited.

77
Q

Interference

A

When information learned previously or learned after interferes with encoding.

78
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

The position of items in a list will affect what you remember best. Tied to primacy effect and regency effect.

79
Q

Long-term Potentiation

A

Tendency of neural circuits to keep processing information. Neural circuitry continues to vibrate after you’ve learned information to allow the neuron to process it. The continued reverberating of the neural signals allows for structural changes in the neurons.

80
Q

Consolidation of memory

A

The process whereby a memory trace for an experience is laid down in the brain. Tied with long-term potentiation.

81
Q

Structural

A

Physical features of a stimulus (is it big or small, is the voice male or female)

82
Q

Orthographic

A

Visual: Does the word have a particular letter
Auditory: Does the word contain a particualr sound.

83
Q

Syntactic

A

Includes the grammatical class of the word

84
Q

Semantic

A

Coding based on the meaning of a stimulus

85
Q

Incidental

A

The person does not know that they are being tested any storage of information comes about incidentally and is an unintended result.

86
Q

Intentional

A

The person knows his or her memory will be tested and intentionally tries to remember the material.

87
Q

Elaboration Hypothesis

A

Expanding on a task semantically may lead to richer associations and retrieval cues for those items.

88
Q

Empiricism

A

John Locke; states that the only source of knowledge comes through our senses.

89
Q

Associationism

A

Theory that complex mental processes can be explained by the associative links formed between ideas. This is the basis for thought or learning.

90
Q

Phrenology

A

The detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities. The shape of a persons head correlates with their mental ability.

91
Q

Reaction Time Experiments

A

Particpants respond as quickly as possible anytime a stimulus appears. It serves as a baseline measure of how quickly a person responds when no other mental processing is required.

92
Q

Subtractive Method

A

A measure of the duration of a process can be found by obtaining two measurements of time that include the process and subtracting one from the other.

93
Q

Signal Detection Theory

A

The detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical/psychological state of the individual. We notice things based on how strong they are and how much we’re paying attention.

94
Q

Cognitive Maps

A

A mental representation of one’s physical environment. Like creating the map to your house when someone asks where you live.

95
Q

Stimulus-Organism-Response

A

A stimulus triggers a response based on the internal feelings or behavior of an organism (person). The processing of the stimulus can be conscious or unconscious, and triggers an emotion that leads to a response.

96
Q

Mental Representations

A

Mental Imagery of things that are not actually present to the senses, like perception, thought, memory, etc.

97
Q

Computer Science

A

The study of principles and use of computers

98
Q

Information Processing Approach

A

Aims to explain how information is encoded into memory. Humans do not merely respond to stimuli in the environment, but instead humans process the information they receive.

99
Q

Cognitive Science

A

Encompasses psychology, computer science, linguistics, philosophy, and neuroscience.

100
Q

Brainstem

A

Involves the autonomic control of physical activity, such as salivation, respiration, heartbeat, digestion, etc.

101
Q

Cortex

A

Responsible for higher level processes of the human brain, including language, memory, reasoning, thought, learning, emotion, and personality.

102
Q

Partial Report Technique

A

A method of testing memory in which only some of the total information presented is to be recalled. Giving a block of text and asking to recall a sentence.

103
Q

Working Memory

A

Small amount of information that can be held in mind and used in the execution of congitive tasks.

104
Q

Phonological Loop

A

Phonological store that is dedicated to working memory and that serves to temporarily hold verbal information. Like repeating a telephone number over and over before dialing it.

105
Q

Procedural memory

A

Type of long term memory involved in the performance of different actions and skills. Memory of how to do certain things that might seem unconscious now.

106
Q

Amnesia

A

Dissociation between procedural and declarative memories, and the ability to remember semantic versus episodic memories, and LTS vs STS. Usually caused by trauma.

107
Q

Interacting Images

A

Lead to better memory in the Wollen, Weber, and Lowry study.

108
Q

Bizarreness effect

A

Bizarrenes did not lead to better memory. If it does, it is due to retrieval processes.

109
Q

Distinctiveness

A

Things that stand out are more likely to be remembered. Picture memory is best under physical orienting instructions.

110
Q

Levels of Processing

A

Proposed by Craik and Lockhart; shallow processing, intermediate processing, and deep processing. Go from one to the other; deep is semantic and the best way to memorize.

111
Q

Levels of Processing: Structural

A

Physical features of a stimulus (visual: is it big or small, auditory: is it male or female?)

112
Q

Levels of Processing: Orthographic

A

Visual: Does the word have a particular letter, Auditory: Does the word contain a particular sound?

113
Q

Levels of Processing: Syntactic

A

Includes the grammatical class of the word

114
Q

Levels of Processing: Semantic

A

Coding based on the meaning of a stimulus.

115
Q

Orienting Tasks

A

Designed to manipulate the type of encoding

116
Q

Semantic Orienting tasks

A

Frequency of word usage and pleasantness/unpleasantness ratings of the word.

117
Q

Non-semantic orienting tasks

A

E-G checking (orthographic), syntactic sentence fram, part of speech.

118
Q

Distinctiveness Hypothesis

A

Ordinary memory mechanisms are capable of generating flashbulb memories. Emotional events are better remembered because they are more distinctive and less subject to interference from similar events.

119
Q

Transfer-appropriate processing

A

aka encoding specificity; encoding is not independent of retrieval processes.

120
Q

Recall/cued recall

A

Provide some retrieval cue to help facilitate memory.

121
Q

Forced choice recognition

A

Requires the test-taker to identify or recognize a previously presented stimulus by choosing between a finite number of alternatives, usually two.

122
Q

Absolute Judgment

A

Like a true/false question involving recognition. “Was this item in the original stimulus list?”

123
Q

Picture Superiority Effect

A

Memory for pictures is superior to memory for words; encourages more elaborate encoding and providing more retrieval cues.

124
Q

Word Frequency Effect

A

We are more likely to recall high frequency words and recognize low frequency words.

125
Q

Relearning

A

method of measuring the retention of learned material by measuring how much faster a person can relearn material that had been previously learned and then forgotten. Number of trials to learn information originally divided by number of trials to relearn = savings.

126
Q

Fragment Completion

A

Used to test implicit memory; an indirect way of detecting memory for a word presented previously by asking participants to fill in the blanks of a sentence.

127
Q

Encoding Specificity

A

Refers to the idea that encoding and retrieval operations must match for memory performance to be maximum.

128
Q

Context Effects

A

An effect of preceding items or experiences on responses to subsequently presented items.

129
Q

Mood congruency

A

Material is best recalled when it matches one’s current mood. If you’re in a positive state of mind, you will also recall positive memories or thoughts.

130
Q

Storage

A

Mainting information over time

131
Q

Forgetting

A

Can either be through decay or interference, the process of losing memory, or an inability to retrieve a memory that is stored.

132
Q

Very long-term memory

A

Due to over learning and distributed practice or picture superiority effect

133
Q

Permastore

A

Relatively permanent information that remains after 3-5 years. The first few years show the steepest decline in memory.

134
Q

Overlearning

A

People being exposed to the same material over and over.

135
Q

Distributed Practice

A

Learning was spread out over time.

136
Q

Forgetting

A

Inability to retrieve information due to interference or lack of viable retrieval hooks.

137
Q

Schema/ta

A

Specific way of storing information in groups. Details may be lost or altered as they become apart of their more general schema memory.

138
Q

Eyewitness Testimony

A

Post-event information can affect the accuracy of witnesses’ testimony; implanted information leads to less accurate memory performance.

139
Q

Misinformation Effect

A

Incorrect pieces of information might have replaced the original information in memory.

140
Q

Misinformation acceptance

A

The participants know the correct answer, but respond yes to the incorrect answer because they feel the experimenter wants that response or else they wouldn’t have asked about it.

141
Q

Flashbulb Memory

A

Memories of unexpected, dramatic, and highly emotional events that are potentially not subject to forgetting.

142
Q

Now-Print Theory

A

Brown and Kulik constructed a special-mechanism hypothesis which demonstrated a distinct neural mechanism for flashbulb memories. Arousal of the limbic system due to emotionality.

143
Q

Reconstructive Script Theory

A

Flashbulb memories are better remembered because of enhanced rehearsal of the event and reconstruction of event details based on schema of disasters.

144
Q

Direct antecedents of the cognitive revolution

A

Human factors engineering, communications, revolt against radical behaviorism, linguistics and computational approach, and computer science and artificial intelligence.

145
Q

Human Factors engineering

A

improvement of human and machine interaction in WW2. Signal detection theory.

146
Q

Communications (antecedent of CR)

A

All forms of communication can be analyzed in a common framework, and information is transmitted and encoded and retrieved later.

147
Q

Revolt Against Radical Behaviorism

A

Tolmans congitive maps and SOR psychology

148
Q

Linguistics and Computational Approach

A

Behaviorism is inadequate in explaining the creativity of language and its modularity. Noam Chomsky’s cognitive manifesto.

149
Q

Sterling Experiment

A

Sensory Store; presented stimulus for 50 milliseconds and asked them to relay how many numbers they remembered. Most remembered 4. Tested them again by activating a cued recall with a tone, which resulted in better memory.

150
Q

Degroot Experiment

A

STS capacity, asked chess masters to view a chess board for 15 seconds and then recreate it. Masters chunked information together more and did better than novices because they imposed meaning on the pieces they were seeing from prior games.

151
Q

Brown-Peterson Task

A

Duration of STS; gave triagrams and asked participants to count backwards by 3s for a certain interval The longer the interval the less they remembered. Proactive vs retroactive interference.

152
Q

Van der Linden

A

Studied A.C. who had a stroke and damaged both L and R occipital and temporal lobes. He remembered more personal semantic information than autobiographical information.

153
Q

Schacter Study

A

Source amnesia; amnesic patients cannot recall how they got information even though they remember the information itself 40% of the time.

154
Q

Bower study

A

Interactive imagery that paired associate learning under three conditions (rote rehearsal, interacting images, and non-interacting images.)

155
Q

Wollen, Weber, and Lowry study

A

Tested interacting vs noninteracting images and bizzare vs common images.

156
Q

Craik and Lokhart Study

A

LOP; subjects learned 24 words composed of 12 pairs of primary associates and given different orientation asks meant to manipulate the type of encoding. Participants given semantic orienting tasks had the best recall, and within that intentional encoding had higher recall.

157
Q

Now Print Theory

A

Brown and Kulik

158
Q

Reconstructive Script Theory

A

o Neisser (1982)
o Flashbulb memories are better remembered because of enhanced rehearsal of the event and reconstruction of event details based on general knowledge of disasters.

159
Q

Distinctivness Hypothesis

A

McCloskey

Cognitive Psychology (1 decks)

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