Midsemester Exam Flashcards
Hypotonic
Solution has lower osmolarity than inside the cell. Cells will swell.
Resting Membrane Potential
Balance of concentration gradient, electrical gradient and permeability for each ion.
3 Classifications of Neuron by Structure
Uniaxial: axons & dendrites, soma (cell body) to the side. Typically sensory.
Biaxial: one axon & one dendrite. Special i.e retina & olfactory.
Multiaxial: one axon & 2 or more dendrites. Typically motor.
PNS
Peripheral nervous system: cranial nerves, spinal ganglia, ganglia.
Afferent & Efferent
Afferent (Sensory) division of PNS, sensory information from somatic nerve fibres (skin, joints) and visceral nerve fibres (visceral organs) to the CNS.
Efferent (Motor) division of the PNS, motor signals from the CNS to effectors.
- 2 Branches:
Somatic (to skeletal muscle)
Autonomic (to cardiac, smooth muscle, glands)
Protein Synthesis Pathway
- DNA transcribes code for protein to mRNA.
- mRNA exits the nucleus for the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
- Ribosomes in the rough ER translate code from mRNA into amino acid sequence for synthesis of proteins.
- Proteins travel in membranous vesicles to Golgi Apparatus for storage, sorting and packaging.
- Vesicles are transported from Golgi Complex to Plasma Membrane where proteins are released via exocytosis.
Hypertonic
Solution has higher osmolarity of non-penetrating solutes than to cell.
Cells will shrink.
Sodium Potassium Pump
A primary active transport simultaneously driving Na+ out of the cell against a steep concentration gradient and pumping K+ in at a ratio of 3 Na+ to 2 K+ ions.
This process helps stabilise resting membrane potential.
- Na+ ions & ATP bond to pump.
- ATP splits and phosphorylates the pump causing it to change shape.
- Na+ is released and K+ binds to the new shape.
- As pump de-phosphorylates the voltage gated channel reverts back to original formation. Releasing K+ ions.
Common Joint Injuries
Sprain, dislocation, cartilage tear.
Achilles Tendon
Inserts into plantaris, medial and lateral gastrocnemius (calf) and soleus.
3 Layers of Skeletal Muscle Connective Tissue
- Epimysium: dense & irregular, surrounds entire muscle.
- Perimysium: fibrous & dense, surrounds fascicles (groups of muscle fibres).
- Endomysium: fine areolar, surrounds each muscle fibre.
Concentration Gradient
Differences in concentration across two areas.
Meninges
Connective tissue membranes external ti brain and spinal cord. Covers and protects CNS, blood vessels, encloses venous sinuses, contains CSF, forms partitions in the skull.
- Dura mater: superficial
- Arachnoid mater: medial
- Pia mater: deep
Nerve & Ganglia
Tract & Nuclei
Nerves: bundles of fibres in the PNS receives and sends signals to the CNS.
Ganglia: neuronal bodies in the PNS.
——————————————
Tracts: neural pathways in the brain and spine
Nuclei: cluster neurons in the CNS
Osmosis
A form of passive transport.
Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of low osmolarity to an area of high osmolarity.
5 Functions of the Skeletal System
- Support
- Protect
- Produce hormones
- Formulate blood cells
- Store minerals and fats
Absolute Refractory Period
&
Relative Refractory Period
Absolute: Time from opening of Na+ channels until reset. Enforces 1 way transmission of action potential.
Relative: Follows absolute refractory period. Most channels reset. Some still open. Action potential can occur but requires stronger stimulus to reach threshold.
Flexor
&
Crossed Extensor
Flexor: withdrawal reflex initiated by painful stimulus.
Crossed extensor: occurs with flexor to maintain balance.
Ipsilateral withdrawal.
Contralateral extensor.
Anatomy of the Brain
Cerebrum:
- Cerebral cortex (grey matter, mostly cell bodies and dendrites)
- Internal white matter (mostly myelinated axons and fibres)
- Basal nuclei (grey matter)
LOBES
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Temporal
- Occipital
Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Extends from the medulla oblongata. Two way communication.
Reverse from brain. White matter superficial, grey matter deep.
Nerves connect via roots.
- Dorsal root (Sensory)
- Ventral root (Motor)
Arthritis
Osteo: chronic degenerative bone disease. “Wear and tear”. More cartilage is destroyed that replaced.
Rheumatoid: chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease. Inflammation of synovial membrane, erodes cartilage and forms scar tissue.
4 Functions of Skeletal Muscle
- Produces movement
- Maintains posture
- Stabilise joints
- Generates heat
Quadriceps
- Vastus lateralis
- Vastus intermedius
- Vastus medialis
- Bicep femoris
3 Connective Tissue Compartments of the Peripheral Nerve
Shielding barriers for the impulse-conducting elements of a nerve.
Endoneurium: surrounds the entire nerve
Perineurium: surrounds fascicles
Endoneurium: surrounds singlular axon/fibre
Spinal & Cranial Nerves
Spinal: originate in the spinal cord.
Cranial: originate in the brain.
- olfactory
- occulomotor
- optic
- trigeminal
- trochlear
- abducens
- accessory
- vagus
- facial
- vestibocochlear
- glossopharyngeal
- hypoglossal
Graded Potential
Change in membrane potential relative to resting membrane potential.
Action Potential
Brief reversal of membrane potential.
The main way neurons transmit signals. Involves opening of specific voltage gates channels.
Peroxisomes
Degrades toxic materials at a cellular level.
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell. Organelle I’m which processes of respiration and energy production occur.
ATP
Source of energy for storage and use at a cellular level.
Phospholipid Bilayer
Hydrophilic heads of the phospholipids that make up the semipermeable membrane facing the ICF and ECF.
Hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids are sandwiched together inside.
Classifications of Joints by Function
Synarthrosis: no movement, fibrous and cartilaginous.
Amphiarthrosis: little movement, fibrous and cartilaginous.
Diarthrosis: free movement, synovial.
- Nonaxial: sliding
- Uniaxial: movement across one plane
- Biaxial: movement across two planes
- Triaxial: movement across three planes
Golgi Apparatus
Curved sacs in the cell that transport vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum.
Classification of Joints by Structure
Fibrous: collagen fibres
Cartilaginous: cartilage
Synovial: fluid filled cavity
1. Jaw
2. Shoulders
3. Elbows
4. Hips
5. Knees
CNS
Brain and spinal cord.
Neurotransmitter
The body’s chemical messengers. Transmits messages between neurons and from neurons to muscles.
Electrical signal converts to chemical signal (neurotransmitter) which triggers electrical signal.
Somatic region of Efferent Division of PNS
Stimulates skeletal muscle
Autonomic region of Efferent Division of PNS
Innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands.
- Parasympathetic: promotes maintenance “rest & repose”
- Sympathetic: mobilises activity “fight or flight”
Leg Bones
Femur
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Synovial Joint Structure
- Articulate cartilage
- Joint cavity
- Articulate capsule
- Synovial fluid
- synovial membrane - Ligaments
- Nerves and blood vessels
Arm Bone
Humerus
Ulna
Radius
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Pelvis
Hip girdle (ilium, ischium and pubis)
Sacrum
Coccyx
Planes
Saggital (median): left - right
Frontal (coronal): anterior - posterior
Transverse (horizontal): superior - inferior
