Middle East Flashcards
Features of the three conflicting agreements made in the 1910s, + causes of Balfour declaration
- McMahon-Hussein letters (1915) This was signed between the British and the Arabs. The Arabs promised to help defeat the Ottoman Empire in the war in exchange to be granted independence after the war was over and the Ottomans had been defeated
- Sykes-Picot agreement (1916): This was signed between the British and French, who agreed to partition the territories under Ottoman control after the war had finished. This conflicted with the previous treaty Britain had signed with the Arabs
- Balfour Declaration (1917): This was a statement made by the British Foreign Secretary Lord Balfour. In it, he declared the British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, following Zionist aims.
Causes: - Balfour may have wanted to gain support from the US, who had a large Jewish population, and who could put pressure on the government to send more troops to the front
- Balfour may have been sympathetic to Zionist aims. He knew the leader of the World Zionist movement and Lord Rothschild, a prominent Jewish political figure
- Balfour could have also wanted to win American support for British plans in the Middle East and secure access to the Suez
The British Mandate and growing Palestinian anger towards Jews
- Britain was given a mandate in 1923 by the League of Nations in Palestine, essentially meaning it had control over the territory. Palestinians were outraged at this as they had been promised independence and were under foreign rule again
- Britain permitted Jewish immigration into Palestine following the Balfour Declaration. Jewish numbers steadily rose as many fled Europe due to Hitler’s Nazism and its threat. They established a defence force, ‘Haganah’ and bought up land in Palestine
- Palestinian Arabs began to grow angry with Jewish immigration and buying up land. They believed Jews had no right to any land in Palestine. Anger led to bloody riots in Jaffa and Jerusalem leaving many dead. Some Jews wanted more protection and formed the Irgun, a terrorist group committed to establishing a Jewish state
The Peel Commission and the Arab Revolt
Peel Commission 1936-37:
1. Sir William Peel made an investigation into how the mandate in Palestine could be governed. He said that Jews and Palestinians could not live together and recommended a partition of the territory, into one Arab and one Jewish state, with a small enclave under British control
2. Arabs were outraged at this, they believed again that the Jews had no right at all to their land, especially as they were given the most fertile areas in the north, and that 300,000 Arabs had to move out of the proposed Jewish state. Jews accepted, it was better than nothing.
3. Arabs went on a full revolt in 1937-39 following the Peel Commission. The British and Haganah used harsh tactics, like burning down rebel house, and imposing curfews. By the end, 20,000 Arabs were casualties and the Palestinian Arabs were in a weak position
Features and causes of the Jewish Insurgency 1945-47
Causes:
1. Extremist groups like the Irgun and Lehi wanted to establish a Jewish state in Palestine by whatever means necessary, and gain publicity for terrorist attacks so the British would withdraw. They were angered by limits placed on Jewish immigration (1.5k a month)
2. Moderate groups like the Haganah wanted to help as many Holocaust survivors into Palestine and gain international sympathy for the need of a Jewish homeland
3. The Holocaust meant for many surviving Jews, living in Europe was impossible and there was much international sympathy towards these people
Features:
1. Terrorist groups began a violent campaign of terror, blowing up the Palestinian railway system, oil pipelines, airfields, infrastructure, and many British troops were killed
2. The King David Hotel, the British Army headquarters in Jerusalem, was bombed by Irgun terrorists in July 1946, which turned public opinion in Britain against the mandate
Reasons why Britain gave up the mandate (SS Exodus, US support for Zionism)
SS Exodus:
1. Haganah smuggled Jews into Palestine in ships, which were often stopped and turned around by the Royal Navy. SS Exodus had many Holocaust survivors but was turned around by the British and the Jews forced to go to refugee camps in Germany. This gave Britain much negative publicity
US support:
1. Many Jews lived in America and supported the Zionist cause with money or by helping to smuggle Jews into Palestine. The press printed articles encouraging Jewish terrorism. The US put economic pressure on Britain to allow Jews into Palestine, since Britain relied on this it could not offend the US
Therefore, Britain eventually handed over the mandate to the UN in 1947
United Nations Partition Plan (Resolution 181)
- UN set up UNSCOP (Special Committee on Palestine) to investigate how the land should be dealt with. They toured the area and were warmly welcomed by the Jewish community, however the Arabs boycotted them, saying they had no right to be there.
- Sep 1947. They announced that Palestine should be partitioned into a Jewish and Arab state, with Jerusalem and Bethlehem being under international control as these were the holiest cities. Two new states would have the same currency, railway and post
Reactions: - Arabs completely reject the plan. As before, they do not believe that the Jews have right to any land at all in Palestine, and they were also given the most fertile areas, and gave over half to the Jews who were one third
- British rejected the proposal as they said the Arabs would find it unacceptable and lead to a civil war. British public wanted Britain out of Palestine quickly
- Jews accepted the plan reluctantly, although they wanted Jerusalem as their capital , and many Arabs would be living in the new Jewish state and own much of the land. They were given a desert in the south (Negev), but at least it recognised independent Jewish state
Plan D and Deir Yassin
Plan D:
1. Haganah wanted to take control of Arab settlements in proposed Jewish areas, and if they resisted they would be expelled. This paved the way for ethnic cleansing in Palestine by Israel
Deir Yassin
1. This was a practical outcome of Plan Dalet. Jews wanted to allow access to Jerusalem as many Jews lived there and Arabs cut off supplies to them.
2. Irgun and Lehi fighters entered the village and massacred 100-120 people, claiming Arabs were using it as a military base. Many Palestinians (250,000) fled Palestine due to this
First Arab-Israeli war and reasons for Israeli victory
- State of Israel was announced on 14th May 1948. On 15th May, the armies of Lebanon, Egypt, Transjordan, Iraq and Syria invaded Israel, determined to destroy it
- Arab Legion of Transjordan occupied West Bank, Egypt attack from the south and Iraq attacked from the north. UN intervened and organised a truce in June. Israel managed to get weapons from Czechoslovakia ignoring weapons embargo, and had time to organise defences, establishing four regional commands with David Ben-Gurion as the commander-in-chief
- Israel attacks just before the truce ends, and occupy areas, such as the Arab villages of Lydda and Ramleh, and expel Arab populations. UN organises another truce
- Again, Israel breaks truce early, retaking Negev desert and capturing Galilee, and pushing Egypt back to the Sinai desert Armistice was eventually signed between Israel and Arab states, only Iraq refused to sign
Why Israel won: - Arab forces were overconfident and did not send their entire armies. Initially, they sent 20-25,000 troops, with Israel having 35,000. By December 1948, Israel had 108,000 troops, double that of the Arabs, despite Arab numbers steadily increasing
- The Arabs were poorly trained and poorly coordinated. Only the Arab Legion of Transjordan received any competent training. Israeli forces had experience fighting with the British in WW2
- Israel reorganised and resupplied during the first truce while the Arabs did nothing
- Israeli forces were highly motivated as they were fighting for the defence of land they believed to be their homeland and to prevent its destruction
- Israel had better tactics, such as quickly moving troops to different parts of the country, and co-ordinated attacks and had a single leader. while Arabs were uncoordinated, with no single leader. For example, the effective army of Transjordan only occupied the West Bank and did not attack Israeli territory any further
Palestinians as refugees and the growing Palestinian resistance (Fedayeen)
- Many middle class Palestinians began new lives elsewhere in the Middle East or migrated to the USA
- Other Palestinians became refugees in nearby countries or in camps in Gaza and the West Bank. Relief was provided by UNRWA (United Nations Relief and Works Agency). Camps in Gaza especially were overcrowded and had poor sanitation
- Arab states denied membership to Palestinians so they could keep their identity and their right to return to their homeland. Jordan ignored this and granted citizenship anyway. But otherwise Palestinians found it hard to find jobs
- Some Palestinians turned to violence and formed a terrorist group called the Fedayeen, which aimed at attacking Israelis from the West Bank and Gaza. Jordan made an effort to stop attacks because of Israeli reprisals, but they continued from Gaza
Israeli immigration 1948-1952 and the Law of Return
Law of Return 1950:
- This stated that any Jew from anywhere in the world could come to Israel and be granted Israeli citizenship, with many Jews fleeing from Europe due to the Holocaust and seeking escape from Soviet control
Immigration
1. Many Jews came from all over and had to be assimilated. They spoke different languages and had some different cultures. There were measures to ensure everyone was assimilated:
- Religious leaders given high status as Judaism was the one thing all immigrants had in common
- Students were taught in Hebrew
- Communal farms, kibbutzim, were established where everyone worked together
- Jewish history was used to give people determination
- Everyone had to perform military service in the IDF so this united people
Features and causes of the Suez Crisis 1956
Causes:
1. Nasser became leader of Egypt after King Farouk was deposed. He had 3 aims, to free Egypt from British occupation, to improve lives of ordinary Egyptians and to be seen as the leader of the Arab world. Britain quickly agrees to remove troops from the Suez canal.
2. Wanted to build a dam for the river Nile at Aswan, to control the flooding of the river and also to provided hydroelectric power for many citizens. To provide money for this dam, he needed to nationalise the Suez Canal to collect tolls from ships passing through.
3. Nasser also purchased weapons from Czechoslovakia, including hundreds of tanks and fighter jets, and imposed a blockade on the Straits of Tiran which Israel needed to trade. Israel decided that war would now be inevitable with Egypt and this would happen sooner rather than later.
Britain, France and Israel signed an agreement at Sevres to invade Egypt, hoping to overthrow Nasser
Features:
1. Israel occupies Gaza and drops paratroopers into Sinai, and set off for Sharm el Seikh. Britain and France drop paratroopers at Port Said and defeat Egyptian forces there, advancing to the Suez Canal. Israel ended the blockade of the Straits of Tiran
2. Everything went well militarily, but for Britain and France politically it was a disaster. US condemned the attack and the USSR threatened a nuclear strike on London. UN peacekeepers ensured security between Israeli-Egyptian border, although Israel had to withdraw from Gaza and Sinai. British PM forced to resign. Lost influence with Arabs, and failed to remove Nasser and regain Suez
3. Fedayeen bases in Gaza had been destroyed and Egypt’s military temporarily destroyed
4. Egypt benefited, as Aswan Dam was financed and life could improve for Egyptians. Nasser had complete control over the Suez and he rebuilt armed forces with Soviet support
The three agreements made at the Cairo Conference 1964 and impact on Israel
- Headwater Diversion Plan - funded by Egypt and Saudi Arabia, Syria and Lebanon would divert sources of the River Jordan to prevent them flowing to the Sea of Galilee and Israel channeling this water for settlements. If that didn’t work, Arabs agreed to prepare for war
- The PLO was set up to unite all Palestinians to regain their homeland, and the PLA was set up so Palestinians could join an army of their own
- Nasser’s leadership of the Arab world was confirmed
Impact: - Israel not worried about PLO or Arab armies, as Israel had modern equipment from USA and France
- Headwater Diversion Plan was a problem. Israel carried out airstrikes against Syria to stop them diverting water, which became a cause of the Six Day war
Fatah and Syrian support for Fatah
- Fatah was established by Yasser Arafat in 1959 as a terrorist group who opposed Israel’s right to exist. Arafat believed that there should be one state of Palestine where Jews and Arabs lived together, and that Palestinians needed to stand up together and arm themselves to destroy Israel
Syrian Support: - Syria provided funds, weapons and explosives for Fatah activities, such as laying mines on railway lines and attacking villages.
- New Syrian government increased support for Fatah and accused Nasser of doing nothing to help Palestinians, although he could not do anything as UN peacekeepers were in Gaza. The two countries signed a defence pact to come to each other’s aid
- Fatah attacks often failed, only killing a few Israelis, and Israel attacked every time, leading to Jordan and Lebanon not supporting Arafat
Israel raid on Samu 1966 and its consequences
- Israeli patrol drove over land mine near Jordan. Fatah was suspected. Israel sent hundreds of troops and a 11 tanks into the West Bank, targeting Samu, where there ordered civilians to remain in the town centre while they dynamited homes
- Jordanian patrol come across Israelis and a fight follows, one Israeli and 15 Jordanians were killed, and Samu was destroyed
Consequences; - Israeli prime minister Levi Eshkol criticised for sending so many troops and USA was angry, because Israel had attacked Jordan, their only Arab ally in the area and destroyed hopes for peace with Jordan
- King Hussein of Jordan faced many protests saying he could not help defend the Palestinians, so he called for revenge against Israel, although he could not afford war. He tried to limit Fatah activity out of the West Bank, and accused Nasser of not doing enough against Israel
Dogfight over the Golan Heights
- The area near the Sea of Galilee was a UN controlled DMZ overlooked by Syrian controlled Golan Heights
- April 1967, Syrian gunners fired on Israeli tractor in the DMZ, and Israel retaliated by bombing Syrian positions with jets. Syria retaliated with their own jets which led to a dogfight. Israel destroyed six of Syria’s aircraft. This greatly increased the tension between Israel and Syria
Growing tension (Nasser’s actions and Israel put on alert for war)
- USSR tells Syria that Israel is massing troops on its border. This is completely untrue, the Soviets may have been genuinely mistaken or wanting to stir up conflict in the region.
- Syria accuses Egypt, who they have a defence pact with, of doing nothing and puts pressure on Nasser to increase animosity towards Israel
- Nasser blocks the Straits of Tiran, limiting Israeli trade, and puts troops in Sinai. He also forces UN peacekeeping troops in Sinai to leave so he can station troops right up to the border with Israel
- Eshkol is not intimidated, and puts Israel and Israeli military forces in a state of alert. People queue up to donate blood, and parks are consecrated
- The USA advises that Israel use military action to take back control of the Straits of Tiran. With US support, Israeli defence minister Moshe Dayan prepares to launch a surprise attack
Israel and the Six Day War
- 5th June 1967, Israel launches a pre-emptive strike on Egypt, using its entire air force to bomb Egyptian airfields and destroying all but 31 planes in their air force
- Israeli ground forces move through Sinai, reaching the Suez Canal in 2 days, fighting over East Jerusalem results in Israeli victory, and later Israel takes control of the Golan Heights and advances into Syria
- Israel had won an amazing victory in just 6 days, due to superior equipment and training of the IDF, superior tactics, and the unprepared, poorly equipped and poorly trained Arab armies
Impact of the war on Egypt and Israel
Egypt:
1. Nasser was humiliated by the defeat, much of his forces had been destroyed and the Suez Canal was unusable. Israel refused to let Egypt clear the canal. Once Nasser had rearmed with Soviet help, Egypt was bombarding Israel on their side of the canal
2. Israel retaliated by destroying Egyptain oil refineries and towns which damaged their economy. This was known as the War of Attrition. A ceasefire was put forward in 1970 to this as it began to escalate with the superpowers getting involved
Israel:
1. Israel had achieved a spectacular victory and had control over occupied territories of Gaza, the West Bank, Sinai, and the Golan Heights. These captured territories provided space for Israel’s growing population, along with resources such as oil , and a buffer zone between Arab states
2. However, it is illegal to capture and annex territory by force and so Israel faced a dilemma. It would also mean integrating a million extra Arabs into Israel who would resent control. UN Resolution 242 proposed a ‘Land for Peace’ idea, Israel return these occupied territories in return for peace
The Yom Kippur war events, 1973
- Anwar Sadat became leader of Egypt after Nasser’s death in 1970, and needed to restore the Egyptian economy. He wanted to do this by gaining back Sinai, which contained significant oil reserves, and would allow him to reopen the Suez Canal, which was a major source of income
- He offered Israel a deal, like UN resolution 242, of peace in exchange for Sinai. The Israeli prime minister Golda Meir rejected this offer
- Sadat faced growing unpopularity as Egypt’s economy was still struggling and so he decided to act
- Egypt attacked Israel on Yom Kippur, the holiest day of the Jewish calendar. They bombed Israeli military bases in Sinai, and broke through the Bar Lev Line using high pressure water cannons and makeshift bridges. Troops poured into Sinai. Egypt was also very well armed, they had Soviet SAM-3 anti-air missiles which prevented Israeli planes providing cover for tanks, and Sagger anti-tank missiles destroyed over half of the 300 Israeli tanks stationed in Sinai
- Syria attacked Israel from the Golan Heights, using 1,200 tanks and 60,000 troops. Israeli forces were overrun. All reserve soldiers were called up and Israel took 72 hours to completely mobilise.
- Eventually, they pushed back Egypt and Syria from the territories, with aid from the USA, and superior equipment
Impact of Yom Kippur war, 1973
- Led to oil embargo by Arab states on USA. This put pressure on the USA who relied on oil for their economy. They put pressure on Israel to stop attacking Egypt and to accept the UN ceasefire. The USSR also threatens to send in troops to defend Egypt
- Israel had won a great victory, despite being surprised on two fronts, it had won after fierce fighting. However, some Israelis were angry at the government for being ill-prepared for an attack. The Israeli prime minister and defence minister both resigned
- Egypt had lost, however confidence in its military was restored, as SAM-3 missile launchers and Sagger anti-tank missiles had done a lot of damage to Israeli forces, and overrunning the Bar Lev Line was a significant achievement. Sadat was seen as a valid successor to Nasser and was in a stronger position to promote his peace in return for Sinai
The impact of the oil crisis
- Arab states placed an embargo on oil for the USA which it badly needed for its economy and so was hit by this. It led to loss of employment and inflation, meaning the USA put more pressure on Israel to make peace with its neighbours
Henry Kissinger’s shuttle diplomacy 1974
- Henry Kissinger, US secretary of state, acted as an intermediary for negotiations between Israel and Arab states (Egypt and Syria). He could put pressure on Israel as they were dependent on US aid, and Egypt were willing to talk as they thought they could reopen the Suez to collect toll money
- The talks were largely unsuccessful because Syria and Egypt still refused to recognise Israel and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin did not want to remove troops from Sinai or the Golan Heights
- However there was some success as Egypt and Israel agreed to pull back from the Suez Canal and a UN peacekeeping force was placed in this DMZ. OPEC also agreed to sell oil to the US again, and another DMZ in the Golan Heights was established
Diplomacy (Sadat and Begin talks, Camp David accords, Treaty of Washington)
Exchange talks:
- Sadat wanted Sinai back and he was offered US aid if he helped make peace with Israel
- 1977, Sadat told the Egyptian National Assembly that he was prepared to go to the ends of the earth to find peace. Begin (Israeli prime minister) also wanted this as he could focus on PLO attacks from Lebanon. Sadat visited Israel and spoke to the Israeli parliament (Knesset)
- He invited Begin to the Egyptian National Assembly where he said he wanted to start peace talks with Egypt but did not mention the Palestinians
- President Carter invited Sadat and Begin to Camp David to continue talks there
Camp David Accords 1978:
- Carter worked hard to create a comfortable and pleasant environment for the two leaders. Eventually two Frameworks for Peace were established with the one between Israel and Egypt being much more clear:
- Egypt and Israel should be at peace and Egypt would allow Israel to use the Straits of Tiran and Suez Canal
- Egypt receives $1 billion from the USA each year for 10 years
- Israel receives $3 billion to dismantle bases in Sinai and agrees to return Sinai to Egypt
- However the Framework for Peace in the Middle East was more vague:
- Israel accepts legitimate rights of Palestinians (vague)
- Israeli troops withdraw from occupied areas of West Bank and Gaza and Palestinians could elect a council for themselves in these areas. It did not mention a lot of things such as Palestinian refugees, Golan Heights or Israeli control of Jerusalem
Treaty of Washington 1979:
- The Camp David Accords were made official with the signing of this treaty between Sadat and Begin
- Egypt and Israel agree to recognise each other, Israel agrees to withdraw from Sinai and Egypt allows Israel to use the Straits of Tiran and Suez Canal
- This was a success for Egypt and Israel however many Arab nations condemned the treaty as no mention of the Palestinians was made and Sadat was seen as a traitor
Raids and reprisals (Coastal Road, Operation Litani, growing tension 1978-81)
Coastal road Massacre: 1978
- PLO militants, all members of Fatah, decided to seize a seaside hotel in Tel Aviv. Arriving by boat just north of the city, they hijacked a bus and shot at passing cars as they drove towards the hotel
- This was eventually stopped by the Israeli police and a shootout followed, in which 38 civilians including 13 children were killed, and nine of the militants were killed. This was the deadliest terrorist attack on Israeli soil
Operation Litani: 1978
- As a reprisal for the Coastal Road Massacre Israel launched Operation Litani. In 1978 26,000 Israeli troops invaded the south of Lebanon to destroy PLO bases there and create a buffer zone. About 1,100 Palestinians and Lebanese died, mostly civilians as Yasser Arafat ordered the PLO to move north out of the way of Israeli attacks
Growing tension: 1979-1981
- The UN quickly ordered a ceasefire and placed peacekeepers on the border, but they came under attack from extremist Palestinians. The PLO grew stronger with Soviet help and acquired long range artillery and rocket launchers. Any IDF raid on the PLO was countered by a rocket attack on settlements in Galilee. The UN ordered a truce but by this point Israel had already made plans to invade Lebanon and destroy the rocket launchers
Operation ‘Peace for Galilee’ - Israel invades Lebanon 1982
- 70,000 troops, 800 tanks and 350 fighters invade Lebanon, claiming to be wanting to stop further attacks by destroying PLO bases in the south and establishing a buffer zone
- Israel quickly moved north to Beirut, causing 300,000 Lebanese to lose their homes and 12,000 were killed. The Israelis surrounded the capital and bombarded the city, cutting off supplies and killing 20,000 Lebanese civilians. The PLO occupied residential areas in the hopes this would deter the Israelis. It did not
- A multinational force intervenes to stop the Israeli bombardment by removing Yasser Arafat and the PLO to Tunisia
Sabra and Shatila massacres, 1982, and the impact of Israeli’s invasion of Lebanon
- Israeli defence minister Ariel Sharon said that 2,000 PLO terrorists still remained in refugee camps in Lebanon
- Israeli forces surrounded the camps of Sabra and Shatila and prevented any civilians from entering or exiting the camps. They allowed Christian Phalange militants to search for any PLO members, however they were angry that their leader Bachir Gemayel had been assassinated earlier
- A massacre followed, in which approximately 3,500 civilians were killed and tortured. Israeli forces did not commit these atrocities but they allowed them to happen
Impact: - Farms in Galilee were now safe from missile attacks by the PLO rocket launchers and Yasser Arafat was stationed a safe distance away in Tunis
- Israeli received very damaging publicity due to the atrocities committed by Israel in Lebanon, such as the use of white phosphorous shells (a terrible chemical weapon)
- Mass protests in Israel against the massacres at Sabra and Shatila involving 300,000 led to the resignation of Ariel Sharon as he was deemed responsible for allowing the massacre to happen
- Hezbollah was created which was an Islamist terrorist group determined to destroy Israel
The First Intifada 1987-93 causes and what happened
- Life in Gaza and West Bank occupied territories for Palestinians was terrible. There was poor sanitation and cramped living conditions. Palestinians had to work in Israel where they were given unskilled jobs even if they were well-educated, and had to pay taxes but had no say in government
- Many Palestinians were angered at the arrival of Jewish settlers in occupied territories and wanted this to stop
- An Israeli market trader in Gaza was stabbed in December. The next day an IDF truck crashed into Palestinian vehicles which were transporting Palestinians returning home from work. Many believed this was a deliberate act of vengeance by Israel and there was rioting at funerals, with protests spreading to the West Bank after the death of another Palestinian the following few days
- The Intifada escalated; many burnt tyres, threw petrol bombs and stones at IDF troops, anti-Israeli graffiti and flying the Palestinian flag, they also refused to work and buy/sell Israeli goods as well as pay taxes
- It was later organised by the UNLU (United National Leadership of the Uprising) which coordinated the protests
Israel responded harshly, with many arrests being made, schools closed down, crowds dispersed with tear gas and rubber bullets (sometimes live rounds) and security increased
Consequences of the Intifada: - Major international opinion shift against Israel, and UN condemned Israel’s response to the uprising. More sympathy for Palestinians and desire to find a solution
- PLO now committed to finding a two state solution rather than destruction of Israel
- Israeli government had to now consider what would happen to the occupied territories of the West Bank and Gaza
Impact of Arafat’s speech to the UN in 1988, impact of the Gulf War 1991, impact of the end of the cold War
Arafat’s speech:
- Arafat renounced terrorism in 1988 and wanted to seek a peaceful solution, asking Israel to withdraw from occupied territories and to take part in negotiations
- USA agreed to open negotiations with the PLO
- USA put pressure on Israel to negotiate with the PLO
- However Israel refused to negotiate with the PLO as they still viewed them as terrorists, and Arafat’s idea of a two state solution was unacceptable
- Islamic Jihad and Hamas rejected Arafat’s idea as it went against their idea of the complete destruction of Israel
Gulf War:
- Iraq invades Kuwait in 1990 and in early 1991, after severe condemnation a UN-approved, US led coalition launched Operation Desert Storm and expelled the Iraqis from Kuwait
- USA was no longer viewed with complete hostility as Arab states had cooperated with it. Stronger negotiating position between Israel and Palestine
- Israel had an improved reputation due to the restraint they showed during the war. Saddam Hussein fired scud missiles at Israel which destroyed many homes but Israel did not retaliate
- Arafat’s reputation was greatly damaged, since he had supported Saddam Hussein since he had backed the PLO. Saudi Arabia and Kuwait withdrew funds and expelled 200,000 Palestinians from Kuwait. The PLO was now bankrupt and Yasser Arafat’s negotiating position was severely weakened
End of the Cold War:
- USSR dissolved in December 1991, and the Cold War was over.
- PLO lost its main supporter of weapons and financial aid, and 200,000 Soviet Jews migrate to Israel, for which Israel started to build settlements in the West Bank
- Negative impact on Palestinian economy since Palestinians working in Israel were now not needed
- USA did not need Israel in the same way since it was now the only superpower and did not need an ally in the Middle East as much as before. USA could put financial pressure on Israel to negotiate with Palestinians
Oslo Accords (1993) and Oslo II (1995)
- Talks began in Oslo, Norway’s capital city, where Israel and Arafat sent moderate representatives to try and reach a peaceful solution. Norwegian foreign minister Johan Holst made the atmosphere friendly and relaxed by holding negotiators in remote farms and his own home
- These agreements were a joint commitment over the next 5 years, after which a full peace treaty would be signed
- Israel accepts PLO as representative of Palestinians, and PLO renounced violence and accepted Israel’s right to exist
- Palestinian National Authority (PNA) should be set up, with members democratically elected by Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza
- Israel should withdraw from parts of the occupied territories of Gaza and the West Bank and hand over authority to the PNA
- Negotiations would take place on difficult problems like borders, ownership of Jerusalem, Israeli settlers and refugee Palestinians in other countries
- Real sense of hope and optimism as each side would gain
Oslo II: - This clarified which parts of Gaza and the West Bank would be given to the PNA to govern fully
- Gaza would eventually be completely Palestinian, but the West Bank would be divided into 3 parts:
Area A was completely controlled by the PNA. It contained eight Palestinian cities and surrounding areas, but only counted for about 3% of the West Bank. No Israelis could enter and PNA would prevent terrorist attacks on Israel from here
Area B was under joint Palestinian civil and Israeli military control. 440 Palestinian villages and surrounding areas, accounting for 25% of the West Bank. Israel had no settlements in this area, and would gradually withdraw troops
Area C was the rest of the West Bank, controlled totally by Israel. There were 110,000 Jewish settlers in this area and some would be gradually transferred to Palestine
Reactions to the Oslo II accords and the failure of the accords
Reactions to Oslo II:
- Moderate Palestinians were shocked that so much of the West Bank had been given away to Israel after being optimistic in 1993. The Israeli controlled area contained much of the area’s natural resources and moving between Palestinian areas A and B would be difficult
- Israelis were very happy with the prospect of peace but some settlers objected to handing over any of ‘Biblical Israel’ at all to Palestinians. Rabin was assassinated by Israeli extremist Yigal Amir, stunning the public. His funeral was attended by many world leaders such as Bill Clinton and King Hussein of Jordan
Failure of Oslo:
- Things initially started well, with Arafat returning from Tunis and the PNA being set up, and elections were held + police force established. Israel also began to withdraw from the West Bank
- However Israel did not trust Arafat and Palestinians did not trust new Israeli prime minister
Israel’s point of view:
- Oslo meant to prevent terrorist attacks on Israel. However Arafat did not stop Islamic Jihad, PFLP or Hamas so Israel felt he was being disingenuous
- Israel took measures to stop movement of terrorists, establishing road blocks between Palestinian cities
- Continued building and expanding settlements in Area C of the West Bank
- Arafat meant economic development in West Bank and Gaza was slow, he was corrupt so donors did not provide money and he rejected UN reconstruction
Palestinian point of view:
- Oslo only gave Palestinians full control over 3% of the West Bank, and movement between Palestinian villages and cities was difficult because of Israeli roadblocks and hampered economic development
- Palestinians would never regain full control since Israel continued building settlements in Area C
- Arafat not accepting UN reconstruction plans meant economic reconstruction stalled in Palestinian territories
Benjamin Netanyahu did not support Oslo and demanded evidence of Palestinian willingness to cooperate before negotiations could continue, while simultaneously allowing Jewish settlers into the West Bank. This led to claims that each side was violating agreements and destroyed goodwill that had existed in 1993, and Oslo was now dead
The Second Intifada, 2000-05
Causes:
1. Ariel Sharon visits the Temple Mount in Jerusalem making a bold claim that Israel should have complete control over Jerusalem and Palestinians had no right over it. Palestinians believed he was acting illegally and insulting one of Islam’s holy sites. Sharon was hated by Palestinians for his role in the Sabra and Shatila massacres in 1982, and so many started protesting violently
2. Palestinians were angered about the lack of progress since Oslo and the continuing influx of Israeli settlers, as well as corruption of people like Arafat. Many Palestinians wanted to achieve a result similar to Hezbollah’s guerrilla campaign in Lebanon which had forced Israel to pull out of the region in May 2000
3. Israel had violently suppressed riots in September of 2000, and over the next 4 years certain incidents like deaths of people such as Muhammad al-Doura, a 12 year old boy, which caused strong feelings of anger
Events:
Palestinians demonstrated with much more significant violence than in the First Intifada, with many terrorist groups now also taking part and competing to be the most influential. They used grenades, knives, bullets and mortars, as well as suicide bombings which struck fear into the hearts of Israelis
Sharon, now the Israeli prime minister, promised to deal with the attacks with force to provide security for Israel. All attacks were dealt with using live ammunition or tear gas. The attacks continued and the killings during ‘Black March’ of 2002 sparked Operation Defensive Shield. Troops occupied the six largest Palestinian cities in the West Bank and imposed strict curfews and many suspects were arrested and weapons confiscated. 500 Palestinians were killed and 1,500 injured. The IDF eventually withdrew, but left behind military checkpoints and cordons to restrict movement.
IDF also laid siege to Arafat’s compound in Ramallah, and this was bombed to ruins. He was airlifted out to receive medical treatment in France. Sharon saw him as corrupt and causing terrorism
Sharon ordered a massive security fence to be built in 2002 to keep terrorists out of Israel, and the number of suicide bombings swiftly decreased. However much of this line crossed into Palestinian territory and they argued Israel was illegally seizing land for themselves.
Impact of the Second Intifada
Palestinians:
- Severe casualties, 5,000 killed and thousands wounded and arrested
- Severe economic damage, 25% unemployed by 2005 and tourism collapsed due to fear of attack. By 2005 60% percent lived in poverty
- Homelessness
- Security fence separated many Palestinians from their farmland, and Israeli military checkpoints made it difficult to travel within Palestinian territory
- Negative publicity due to suicide bombings
- PNA ministries destroyed and ransacked
Israelis:
- Casualties, over 1,000 killed and thousands more wounded
- Tourism to Israel collapsed and huge cost of military operations, by 2005 ten percent were unemployed and 30% lived in poverty
- Negative publicity, use of harsh tactics and refusal to follow international law, gained some sympathy for Palestinians
Roadmap for Peace, 2003
- EU, UN, USA and Russia supported a new proposal (Roadmap for Peace) to deescalate the situation. Sharon agreed to talk but not with Arafat so Mahmoud Abbas carried out discussions as Palestinian prime minister
- Sharon and Abbas agreed on the principle and shook hands, however Arafat refused to give support and it looked doomed to fail. Abbas later resigned
- The plan was for Israel to stop settlement building and pull out from any built since 2000, and for Palestinians to stop the fighting, then for discussions to be held on Jerusalem’s status and Palestinian refugee right to return
- However in late 2004, Arafat died and Abbas was elected president of the PNA, and made a genuine effort to end Palestinian violence against Israel. Sharon was pleased with this and agreed to resume talks on the Roadmap, and this was successful, with a promise of $50 million in US aid, Palestinians agreeing to a ceasefire, and Israel agreeing to withdraw from occupied cities. The Intifada was over in February 2005
- Israeli Knesset agreed to withdraw from Gaza, which Sharon needed to do so the US would give him aid
Reason for failure: - In 2006 Sharon suffered a massive stroke. Right wing Israelis did not want to withdraw from the West Bank due to the significant number of Jewish settlers (400,000) that lived there, and did not consider Palestinian opinions, refusing to cede any part of Jerusalem to them
- Hamas won control of the Palestinian Assembly in 2006. They wanted to the complete destruction of Israel and did not attend Roadmap talks, they fired over 1,000 Qassam rockets into Israel during the first half of 2006, and Israel bombed launch sites in Gaza and strengthened a blockade around Gaza
- Hamas was seen as a terrorist organisation by the developers of the Roadmap so they withheld all aid to the PNA
- They fiercely opposed Abbas and his party Fatah, with tension erupting into violence and in 2007, Fatah attempted to take control of Gaza, but Hamas expelled all Fatah members from Gaza
Gaza War, 2008-2009
- Life for people in Gaza was terrible, with Israeli blockade and sanctions meaning that there was little food, medical supplies and fuel. 80% of the population lived in severe poverty and caught up in the violence between Hamas and Fatah supporters as well as Israeli airstrikes
- Israel began preparing for an invasion of Gaza to remove armed members of Hamas and ending Qassam rocket attacks, which Hamas expected so prepared for urban warfare
- Started on December 27, 2008, and Israel launched Operation Cast Lead. Israeli airstrikes hit planned targets in Gaza, and attacks targeted Hamas headquarters, police stations and government office. 225 Palestinians were killed on the first day of the war, the single deadliest day in 60 years of conflict
- January 2009, Israeli ground invasion started, aiming to kill Hamas fighters and destroy smuggling tunnels, with the whole conflict lasting 3 weeks
Impacts: - 4,000 homes, many factories and businesses as well as other infrastructure including hospitals and UNRWA facilities were destroyed
- Over 1,000 Palestinians killed, a third children, due to Hamas using them as human shields and fired rockets from urban areas. Most of the population was forced to rely on aid
- Only 13 Israelis were killed and achieved a tactical victory, with Hamas losing fighters, weapons and smuggling tunnels. However they received lots of negative publicity, with the media full of images of dead civilians and destruction (Israel also used white phosphorous). Israeli gains were also short term, since Hamas was not severely weakened and hatred for Israel increased, rocket attacks soon restarted. Two sides remained as far apart in 2012 as in 1987
