Mid Term Exam

Question 1

According to the lecturer and the text, what is Industrial/Organizational Psychology?

Answer 1

Industrial/organizational psychology is the scientific study of the workplace. Rigor and methods of psychology are applied to issues of critical relevance to business.

Question 2

How do the Industrial and Organizational sides of the field differ?

Answer 2

The industrial side of the field manages human resources of organizations and deals with topics such as recruitment and attraction, performance appraisal, training needs assessment and training design, etc. The organizational side of the field aims to understand and predict behavior within organizational setting, and deals with topics such as work attitudes, work teams, work motivation, etc.

Question 3

Briefly describe the original purpose of the Hawthorne studies.

Answer 3

The original purpose of the Hawthorne studies was to examine how changes in physical working conditions, such as increased illumination, frequent breaks, and wage increases, could improve productivity.

Question 4

What was the major conclusion from the Hawthorne studies?

Answer 4

The major conclusion from the Hawthorne studies is that changes in productivity were the result of consideration and attention paid to the employees.

Question 5

Why are the Hawthorne studies significant to the field of Organizational Psychology?

Answer 5

The Hawthorne studies are significant to the field of Organizational Psychology because they demonstrated the need to focus on both social and physical environments as determinants of organizational effectiveness.

Question 6

What does the equation B=f (P, E) mean?

Answer 6

This equation is the framework for understanding behavioral outcomes in organizational psychology. It means that behavior (B) is the result of the interaction between a person (P) and the person’s environment (E).

Question 7

Give an example in an organizational setting to illustrate the meaning of the equation B=f (P, E).

Answer 7

The impact of employee personality (P) on work attitudes (B) occurs through the influence of organizational climate (E).

Question 8

Describe the difference between mediation and moderation, according to thelecturer.

Answer 8

Mediation is when the impact of one predictor on the dependent variable occurs through the influence of another predictor. Moderation is when the impact of one predictor on the dependent variable depends on the level of the other predictor.

Question 9

What is a “schema”?

Answer 9

A schema is a knowledge structure that contains the generic representation of a concept, person, group, or a situation. It summarizes what we know (and how we feel) about a concept.

Question 10

Give an example of how schemas influence social perception.

Answer 10

If one sees a group of people in an office who are all wearing suits and having a serious conversation, schema would suggest that the people in the group are colleagues having a business meeting. However, if one sees a group of people in a bar who are all wearing t-shirts and jeans, and having a casual conversation, schema would suggest that the people in the group are friends who are “hanging out”.

Question 11

What does it mean to be socialized into a new organization?

Answer 11

Being socialized into a new organization is when a new employee learns about the organization, the work unit, and the job.

Question 12

What types of things does a new employee need to learn during the socialization process?

Answer 12

The types of things that a new employee need to learn during the socializtaion process include:

• organizational values, history, and goals
• how to perform the job
• role with respect to boss/co-workers
• norms of conduct, politics
• people
• unique language/jargon

Question 13

According to the text, what types of information might a new employee seek out as part of the socialization process?

Answer 13

The types of information that new employees seek out as part of the socialization process include:

• information about their roles (referent information)
• information about how they are performing their jobs (performance feedback)
• information about their social integration (social information)

Question 14

What types of actions might an organization take to socialize a diverse group of new employees, and why would those actions be effective?

Answer 14

The types of actions that an organization might take to socialize a diverse group of new employees include:

• establish a positive diversity climate - this communicates to the newcomers that diversity is valued in the organization and seen as strength
• assess and develop capabilities - this assesses incumbent group members to see if they are open to diverse colleagues, and if they lack the capabilities to do so
• enhance social support - this provides individuals, particularly those who perceive themselves different from co-workers, support through both formal and informal mentoring programs.
• promote collective identities, yet at the same time, support unique identities - this attempts to highlight the shared mission of the workgroup, while at the same time, recognizing the unique conributions of the diverse group members

Throug this actions, organizations can make sure that individuals in a diverse group are accepted and their talents are fully utilized.

Question 15

How do social perception processes influence employee socialization?

Answer 15

Social perception processes influence employee socialization by providing us with a cognitive shortcut to understanding new information. For example, when learning about people in the organization, we use social categorization where, based on as little as one characteristic, we classify an individual to a group that shares that same characteristic, and form expectations based on group membership.

Question 16

Give an example to illustrate how social perception processes influence employee socialization.

Answer 16

If a new employee perceives people from a certain ethnic race friendlier than others then he or she will likely socialize and open up more to employees who belong to this particular ethnic race.

Question 17

Define what it means to stereotype.

Answer 17

To stereotype means ascribing attributes to individuals on the basis of group membership.

Question 18

What are at least two benefits and two problematic aspects of stereotyping?

Answer 18

Two benefits of stereotyping:

1. provides us with simple and quick way to classify, observe, and understand others
2. more efficient processing of information

Two problematic aspects of stereotyping:

1. leads to inaccurate predictions and expectations of others
2. interferes with accurate perceptions of others

Question 19

What are the effects of in-group – out-group categorization?

Answer 19

Effects of in-group - out-group categorization include:

• greater attraction to in-group members
• maximization of intergroup distinctions
• minimization of intragroup distinctions
• in-group favoritism
• out-group derogation

Question 20

Explain Heilman’s Lack of Fit model.

Answer 20

Heilman’s lack of fit model is a descriptive-based bias where there is a mismatch between the stereotype of the role and the perceived stereotype of the candidate.

Question 21

How do the prescriptive and descriptive aspects of gender stereotypes explain barriers to the advancement of women in the workplace?

Answer 21

Descriptive-based bias - the percived mismatch between the attributes required for a managerial job (which typically are stereotypic attributes ascribed to men, i.e., agency) and the stereotypic attributes ascribed to women, i.e., communal, is likely to produce expectations of failure.

Prescriptive-based bias - when women are acknowleged to have the attributes required for a manageral job, their successes are considered to be a violation of the prescriptive norms associated with gender stereotypes, which is likely to induce disapproval that can result in penalities for the violators.

Question 22

Describe what stereotype threat means.

Answer 22

Stereotype threat is the expectation/concern of being judged and treated according to a negative stereotype about one’s group.

Question 23

How does stereotype threat affect performance?

Answer 23

Stereotype threats disrupt performance, thus, resulting in lower task performance.

Question 24

According to attribution theory, what are the three kinds of information used in forming causal attributions and how do they influence attributions?

Answer 24

According to the attribution theory, the three kinds of information used in forming causal attributions are:

1. consensus
2. distinctiveness
3. consistency

Low consensus, low distinctiveness, and high consistency are attributed to internal.

High consensus, high distinctiveness, and low consistency are attributed to external.

Question 25

What is “self-serving bias"? Give an example of it in an organizational setting to illustrate.

Answer 25

Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute our successes to ourselves, and failures to other and the situation. For example: if a project that I was working on is completed on time and on budget, then I would attribute this success to my good project management skills. If, however, the project is delayed and over budget, I would blame this result on other project team members, management decisions, budget issues, etc.

Question 26

What is “fundamental attribution error”? Give an example of it in an organizational setting to illustrate.

Answer 26

Fundamental attribution error is overestimating the role of human factor and overlooking the impact of situation on behavior. For example: We might explain the fact that someone is unemployed on his character, and therefore blame him for his plight, when, in fact, he was just laid off due to a sluggish economy.

Question 27

What is “group-serving bias”? Give an example of it in an organizational setting to illustrate.

Answer 27

Group-serving bias is the tendency to make internal attributions about our in-group's successes, and external attributions about their setbacks; and make the opposite pattern of attributions about our out-groups. For example: In business settings, successes are usually credited to employees' efforts, successful advertising, etc. Failures, however, are instantly attributed to outside "sabotage" of competitors rather than examining possible internal factors.

Question 28

Distinguish between performance and results, giving an example from your last job to illustrate.

Answer 28

Performance is a type of indicator and results is a type of measure. Performance refers to behaviors or actions that employee engage in to complete tasks and accomplish duties and responsibiliites associated to a given job. Results refer to the effectiveness of these behaviors or actions. For example: As part of her work objective, an employee was asked to train the team on how to use a system she was supporting. The employee provided the training (performance) but she a bad job of doing this (result).

Question 29

Why is this difference between performance and result important?

Answer 29

Distinguishing betewen performance and result is important because it is helpful in determining: * how to manage and measure performance * how to talk about performance * how to use the information on performance and result towards enhancing productivity

Question 30

What are the determinants of performance according to Campbell?

Answer 30

The determinants of performance according to Campbell are: * declarative knowlege * procedural knowlege * motivation

Question 31

Define and describe the different dimensions of organizational citizenship behaviors(OCBs).

Answer 31

The different dimensions of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are: 1. **Alltuism** - represents what we typically think of as "helping behaviors" in the workplace. An example would be an employee's voluntarily assisting co-workers who are having difficulty operating their computer. 2. **Courtesy** - represents behaviors that reflect basic consideration for others. An example would be prediodically "touching base" with one's co-workers to find out how things are going. 3. **Sportsmanship** - is typically exhibited by not engaging in certain forms of behaviors such as complaining about problems or minor inconveniences. 4. **Conscientiousness** - involves being a good citizen in the workplace and doing things such as arriving on time for meetings. 5. **Civic Virtues** - targets the organization (or the workgroup) rather than the individual. An example would be attending a charitable function sponsored by the organization.

Question 32

According to the lecturer and the text, what are the antecedents of OCBs?

Answer 32

The antecedents of OCBs are: 1. perceived justice 2. positive mood/affect/job satisfaction 3. dispositions (agreeableness, conscientiousness, and colectivist values)

Question 33

How could an organization try to increase the level of OCBs in an organization? Justify your suggestions with information from the text or lecture.

Answer 33

If employees perform OCB primarily because they are satisfied with their jobs, or feel that they have been treated fairly, organizations can influence the performance of OCB by treating employees fairly and taking steps to enhance satisfaction. On the other hand, if OCB is performed with the expectation of rewards, or for impression management purposes, organizations should directly or indirectly link rewards to the performance of OCB.

Question 34

Should an organization try to increase the level of OCBs?

Answer 34

This will depend on the employees' motives to perform OCBs.Yes, if the motives are due the employee's job satisfaction and perceived fairness. No, if the motives are expectaton of rewards or impression management.

Question 35

What are some of their potentially negative aspects?

Answer 35

Some of the negative aspects of OCBs include: 1. increased stress 2. decreased task performance 3. increased interprsonal conflicts

Question 36

How do you define counterproductive performance?

Answer 36

Counterproductive performance is the voluntary behavior to harm the wellbeing of the organization and/or its members.

Question 37

Provide three individual predictors of counterproductive behaviors

Answer 37

Three individual predictors of counterproductive behaviors are: 1. personality 2. perceived injustice 3. job dissatisfaction

Question 38

Provide three situational predictors of counterproductive behaviors

Answer 38

Three situational predictors of counterproductive behaviors are: 1. opportunity 2. job stressors 3. interpersonal conflicts

Question 39

What are the primary factors that have been shown to predict absenteeism, according to the text?

Answer 39

The primary factors that have been shown to predict absenteeism are: 1. job satisfaction 2. organizational commitment

Question 40

Distinguish between functional and dysfunctional turnover

Answer 40

Dysfunctional turnover is harmful to the organization and can take numerous forms, including the exit of high performers or employees with 'hard-to-replace' skills. Functional turnover, in contrast, is not harmful to the organization. Examples of this type of turnover include the exit of poor performers or employees whose talents that are easy to replace.

Question 41

Distinguish between avoidable and unavoidable turnover

Answer 41

**Avoidable** turnover stems from causes that the organization might be able to influence (e.g., exit of a high performer due to job dissatisfaction). **Unavoidable** turnover stems from causes that the organization has little or no control (e.g., exit of a high performer due to health issues).

Question 42

What type(s) of turnover might organizations want to encourage?

Answer 42

The type of turnover that organization might want to encourage is a functional turnover.

Question 43

What type(s) of turnover do they want to reduce?

Answer 43

The types of turnover they want to reduce are dysfunctional and avoidable turnovers.

Question 44

Describe how the unfolding model of turnover differs from the Mobley model of turnover.

Answer 44

The unfolding model of turnover differs from the Mobley Model of turnover in the following ways: * non-attitudinal cause of turnover * leavers may exit without seeking for or evaluating alternative jobs * there are multiple pathways to quit

Question 45

According to the lecturer, what shortcomings of Mobley model does the unfolding model address?

Answer 45

The shortcomings of the Mobley model that the unfolding model addresses are: * job dissatisfaction as the main stimulus for leaving * prospective leavers quit for another job * prospective leavers rationally evaluate alternatives

Question 46

An organization asks you to make some suggestions to increase employee retention. What are four specific strategies you could make using the concept of job embeddedness, and why would those strategies be useful (explain how they influence aspects of embeddedness)?

Answer 46

To in order to increase employee retention, the organization should focus on strategies that would increase organizational embeddedness. Examples of such strategies include: 1. Fully utilize employees' talents and skills, and provide more job involvment. This will make employees feel that they are making important contributions to the organization, and, thus, perceive a good fit beween them and the organization. 2. Provide empoloyees with valuable benefits (both tangible and intangible). Recognizing the amount of benefits that will be sacrificed will make it harder for employees to leave the organization. 3. Develop and facilitate internal promotion policies, lateral transfers and job rotations. Opportunity-enhancing work practices, such as these, will likely have the biggest impact on organizational-embededdness.

Question 47

What, according to the lecturer and the text, is the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance?

Answer 47

There is a positive correlation (of 0.30) between job satisfaction and job performance.

Question 48

Explain how (mediators) job satisfaction can cause job performance.

Answer 48

The impact of job satisfaction on job performance occurs through the influence of mood or withdrawal of an employee

Question 49

Explain how (mediators) job performance can cause job satisfaction.

Answer 49

The impact of job performance on job satisfaction occurs through the influence of success/goal progress, self-efficacy, or mood of an employee.

Question 50

Define organizational commitment.

Answer 50

Organizatinal commitment is the extent to which the employees are dedicated to their employing organization and are willing to work on their behalf, and the likelihood that they will maintain membership.

Question 51

What are the three components of organizational commitment?

Answer 51

The three components of organizational commitment are: 1. **affective** - reflects the extent to which employees identify with the organization and feel a genuine sense of loyalty toward it 2. **continuance** - based on employees' perceptions of the relative investments they have made in the organization, and the relative costs associated with seeking membership in another organization 3. **normative** - based on an employee's feeling of obligation to the organization, wherein remaining a member is the morally right thing to do

Question 52

Describe three specific strategies, according to the text, that organizations can use to influence the level of organizational commitment among their employees; and explain why these strategies would be effective.

Answer 52

Three specific strategies that can influence the level of organizational commitment among their employees: 1. **During the recruitment and acceptance process, organizations should provide realistic information**. Potential employees who are provided with candid information presumably feel that the organization has "laid its cards on the table" so that they can make an informative decision about whether to join the organization or not. 2. Utilize the investiture approach to socialization, which allows a new employee to be a full-fledged member while still maintaining some individuality. The newcomer recieves a message of affirmation and willingess, on part of the organization, to respect the rights of employees. 3. Develop internal promotion policies, facilitate formal training programs, and provide opportunities for lateral transfers and job rotations. Providing employees with meaningful developmental experiences facilitate higher levels of commitment among employees.

Question 53

Distinguish between schemas and attitudes.

Answer 53

A **schema** is a knowledge structure that contains generic representation of a concept, person, group, or a situation. It summarizes what we think (and how we feel) about a concept. An **attitude** is a psychological tendency, expressed by evaluating a particular entity (object, person, or an event) with some degree of favor or disfavor.

Question 54

What is the relationship between schemas and attitudes?

Answer 54

Attitudes are based on the content of the schemas.

Question 55

What is the relationship among the components of an attitude, according to the self-perception model?

Answer 55

behavior -\> affect behavior -\> cognition

Question 56

What is the relationship among the components of an attitude, according to the rational model?

Answer 56

cognition -\> affect -\> behavioral intention -\> behavior

Question 57

What is the relationship among the components of an attitude, according to the emotion-driven model?

Answer 57

affect -\> cognition -\> behavioral intention -\> behavior

Question 58

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the different measures of job satisfaction described in the text and in class.

Answer 58

Faces * Advantage: simplicity and the fact the respondents need not possess a high reading level to complete it * Disadvantage: it does not provide the researcher with any information about an employee's satisfaction with different facets of the job Job Descriptive Index (JDI) * Advantage: a great deal of data supports its construct validity * Disadvantage: the lack of an overall satisfaction scale Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) * Advantage:provide quit extensive information about an employee's satisfaction with various facets of the job and work environment * Disadvantage: full version of the MSQ is time-consuming and very difficult to complete, especially if the researcher wishes to measure other variables

Question 59

When and why would you choose to use one measures of job satisfaction over the other?

Answer 59

**Faces** - an excellent scale to use if a researcher were surveying a small sample of employees who were known to have low level of education. **Job Descriptive Index** (JDI) - useful for comparing job satisfaction scores to a normative sample from the same occupation. **Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire** (MSQ) - especially useful when organizations are conducting internal employee opinion surveys.

Question 60

An organization wants to increase job satisfaction among employees. How might this be accomplished, according to the physical/economic perspective?

Answer 60

To increase job satisfaction according to the physical/economic perspective: * improve physical working conditions * increase pay * provide better benefits

Question 61

An organization wants to increase job satisfaction among employees. How might this be accomplished, according to the social/human relations perspective?

Answer 61

To increase job satisfaction according to the social/human relations perspective: * employ good leaders * facilitate cohesive workgroups * build good employee-management relations

Question 62

An organization wants to increase job satisfaction among employees. How might this be accomplished, according to the growth/work itself perspective?

Answer 62

To increase job satisfaction according to the growth/work itself perspective: * create challenging work for the employees * provide more autonomy * provide more job involvment

Question 63

An organization wants to increase job satisfaction among employees. How might this be accomplished, according to the social information processing approach?

Answer 63

To increase job satisfaction according to the social information processing approach: * management should determine and have a conversation with the employee(s) responsible for the negative attitudes / behaviors of the workgroup * management should create a more open line of communication with the employees to discuss any concerns that they may have

Question 64

An organization wants to increase job satisfaction among employees. How might this be accomplished, according to the dispositional approach?

Answer 64

To increase job satisfaction according to the dispositional approach organizations should employ people with the following traits: * conscientuousness * extraversion

Question 65

According to equity theory, what are predicted responses to underpayment inequity?

Answer 65

According to equity theory, the predicted responses to underpayment are: * increase outcomes * reduce inputs * make cognitive adjustments * change the “comparative standard” * leave the field

Question 66

According to equity theory, what are predicted responses to overpayment inequity?

Answer 66

According to equity theory, the predicted responses to underpayment are: * increase outcomes * reduce inputs * make cognitive adjustments * change the “comparative standard”

Question 67

What is the Job Characteristics Theory/Model of Motivation?

Answer 67

Job characteristics theory proposes mediating linkages between job characteristics and outcomes, and by specifying moderators of invididual differences. According to the model, each job can be described in terms of each of the five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.

Question 68

Define and describe the components (major constructs) of the Job Characteristics Theory.

Answer 68

1. **Skill variety** - represents the extent to which a job requires that a person must use many different skills. 2. **Task identity** - represents the extent to which a job requires that a person must complete a whole identifiable piece of work, as opposed to a fragment of it. 3. **Task significance** - represents the degree to which performing a job is important or "counts for somtheing". 4. **Autonomy** - represents the degree to which employee have control and discretion over things such as how they perform their job tasks and schedule their work. 5. **Feedback** - represents the degree to which peforming a job provides information about the performance of the job incumbent.

Question 69

Describe four specific ways in which a male-dominated work environment contributed to lower job satisfaction and higher turnover for women at Deloitte & Touche.

Answer 69

Four ways in which a male-dominated work environment contributed to lower job satisfaction and higher turnover for women at Deloitte & Touche: 1. Nature of work – women were not getting their fair share of the best assignments. 2. Promotion and career opportunities – women in the firm perceived that they had fewer opportunities for career advancement than men because women were not being mentored and didn’t have role models of successful women. 3. Teamwork –the firm’s work environment was organized around male behavior, male ways of doing things, male filters, all which was a foreign language for women. As a result, women felt intrinsically less worthy, less valued, less important, and less likely to be making a contribution. 4. Work/life balance – employees often have to cope with the crushing work schedule, which was typical of the firm.

Question 70

What does theory and research say about the relationship of gender and race/ethnicity to turnover?

Answer 70

According to theory, gender and race/ethnicity affects turnover where there is a higher turnover of women compared to men, and a higher turnover of black people comapred to white people. Research supports the theory but only for the first four years of employment where black women had the highest turnover, followed by white women, black men, and white men, who had the lowest rate of turnover. After four years of employment, however, the turnover rates not only decreased for all groups but the difference in turnover rates between them is hardly noticeable.

Question 71

What are the goals of diversity training, according to the lecturer?

Answer 71

The goals of diversity are to: * raise awareness with the intention of changing attitudes and behaviors * reduce bias * encourage positive interactions * enhance the climate in the workplace

Question 72

How effective is diversity training in attaining these goals?

Answer 72

Diversity has: * positive, large effects on knowledge and skill outcomes * smaller, inconsistent effect on attitudes

Question 73

Why is diversity training less effective for attitude change?

Answer 73

Diversity training is less effective for attutide change because attitude is based on the content of the schemas that we've built over time. Therefore attending a diversity training that has relatively short duration where the particpants are learning only passively, i.e., no activities that require interdependence and social interactions among particpants, will not be sufficient to change one's attitude.

Question 74

Theoretically, why are employee resource groups useful for the advancement of women and people of color in organizations?

Answer 74

Employee resource groups are useful for the advancement of women and people of color in organization because this provides them with a platform where they can perform the following functions that can contribute to career success: * engage with other employees who share their concerns * create stronger network ties * improve information socialization

Question 75

What evidence exists regarding the effectiveness of employee resource groups?

Answer 75

Study shows positive effect of emplouee resource groups on: * mentoring received * career optimsim * having more contacts and social support

Question 76

You work for a pizza delivery service and would like to improve the safety and timeliness of the drivers. A. Design a goal setting program to address this, and be sure to include all conditions needed for goals to influence performance.

Answer 76

The following specific goals with medium level of difficulty will be given to the drivers: * make complete stops whenever there is a STOP sign * use the turn signal before turning into a street/road * use safety belts at all times Upon the acceptance of the drivers to try to attain these goals, they will receive a weekly feedback regarding their performance on each of these set goals.

Question 77

You work for a pizza delivery service and would like to improve the safety and timeliness of the drivers. B. Design an organizational behavior modification intervention to address the problem.

Answer 77

Failure to adhere to any of the set goals will result in a penalty of losing a certain amount from the commission. Consistently adhering to all the set rules will result in a reward of earning additional amount to the commision.

Question 78

Given a scenario of a motivation problem, be able to a) explain the problem.

Answer 78

Olga works as an application support staff for a bank. Before the IT department restructured, she was supporting a group of traders who made her feel important. She worked alone and managed her own tasks and schedule at work. After the restructure, however, she was moved to a team where she had to report to a manager that had the same corporate level as she did. Not happy with her new situation, she did not interact much with the team, she continued to do her own work and schedule her own office hours. When asked to follow certain team rules, she realized that she no longer had the same autonomy as she did previously. As a result of all these changes, Olga lost her motivation to work for the bank.

Question 79

Given a scenario of a motivation problem, be able to b) suggest a solution to the problem using at least three different process theories of motivation.

Answer 79

Using the goal-setting approach, Olga will be given a set of specific objectives that she would need to accomplish. These specific objectives will be set based on the requirements of the role and the workgroup. Of course, she probably will not be willing to accept some or most of these objectives given her attitude about her new role, so both behavioral approach and expectancy theories will also be used to provide her with incentives that she values (e.g., internal/external training, bonus based on good performance feedback, ability to work from home).

Question 80

Identify similarities and differences among the various content theories of motivation.

Answer 80

Content theories of motivation include: 1) Maslow's hierarchy needs theory, 2) Alderfer's ERG theory, 3) McClelland' learned needs theory, and 4) Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory. Similarities: * All content theories focus on individual's needs in explaining job satisfaction, behavior, and reward systems (i.e., "What" motivates employees?) * The basis of the theories is that individual need deficieincies will activate tension within a person that will trigger a behavioral response. * The theories suggest that: * specific needs trigger desired behaviors * meaningful rewards help individual satisfy needs * offering approriate rewards can optimize performance * the needs of the individuals will not necessarily repeat themselves in a regular pattern Differences: * Maslow's hierarchy needs theory - needs are met in a hierarchical order * Alderfer's ERG theory - unmet needs can be satisfied at any level simultaneously * McClelland's learned needs theory - motivating needs are developed through experience * Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory - maintenance or hygiene factors do not motivate employees